as Symonds {214} relates, a general strike of weavers had taken place in 1812, which was brought about by a secret association.  It was repeated in 1822, and on this occasion vitriol was thrown into the faces of the two working-men who would not join the association, and were therefore regarded by the members as traitors to their class.  Both the assaulted lost the use of their eyes in consequence of the injury.  So, too, in 1818, the association of Scottish miners was powerful enough to carry on a general strike.  These associations required their members to take an oath of fidelity and secrecy, had regular lists, treasurers, bookkeepers, and local branches.  But the secrecy with which everything was conducted crippled their growth.  When, on the other hand, the working-man received in 1824 the right of free association, these combinations were very soon spread over all England and attained great power.  In all branches of industry Trades Unions were formed with the outspoken intention of protecting the single working-man against the tyranny and neglect of the bourgeoisie.  Their objects were to deal, en masse, as a power, with the employers; to regulate the rate of wages according to the profit of the latter, to raise it when opportunity offered, and to keep it uniform in each trade throughout the country.  Hence they tried to settle with the capitalists a scale of wages to be universally adhered to, and ordered out on strike the employees of such individuals as refused to accept the scale.  They aimed further to keep up the demand for labour by limiting the number of apprentices, and so to keep wages high; to counteract, as far as possible, the indirect wages reductions which the manufacturers brought about by means of new tools and machinery; and finally, to assist unemployed working-men financially.  This they do either directly or by means of a card to legitimate the bearer as a “society man,” and with which the working-man wanders from place to place, supported by his fellow-workers, and instructed as to the best opportunity for finding employment.  This is tramping, and the wanderer a tramp.  To attain these ends, a President and Secretary are engaged at a salary (since it is to be expected that no manufacturer will employ such persons), and a committee collects the weekly contributions and watches over their expenditure for the purposes of the association.  When it proved possible and advantageous, the various trades of single districts united in a federation and held delegate conventions at set times.  The attempt has been made in single cases to unite the workers of one branch over all England in one great Union; and several times (in 1830 for the first time) to form one universal trades association for the whole United Kingdom, with a separate organisation for each trade.  These associations, however, never held together long, and were seldom realised even for the moment, since an exceptionally universal excitement is necessary to make such a federation possible and effective.