of great antiquity, and thus has preserved to us very ancient readings.  Revisions and corrections by a later hand are to be carefully distinguished from the primitive writing.  Yet these may be valuable, as testifying to the prevailing reading of the age to which they belong.  The general class or family to which a given manuscript belongs is also to be taken into the account.  In a word, so many elements of judgment are to be taken into account in determining the relative weight of authority that belongs to a given manuscript, that the right decision of the question requires large observation combined with much critical tact.

9. Ancient versions are of great value in textual criticism; for some of them, as the old Latin and Syriac, to which may be added the old Egyptian versions, are based on a text more ancient than that preserved to us in any manuscript.  In textual criticism, the testimony of a version is valuable in proportion to its antiquity, its fidelity—­not its elegance or even its correctness of interpretation, but its literal closeness—­and the purity of its text.  Versions are liable to all the corruptions of text incident to Greek manuscripts, and far more liable to interpolations by explanatory glosses.  The difference of idiom, moreover, frequently prevents such a literal rendering as shall be a sure indication of the form belonging to the original text.

10.  The citations of the church fathers, which are immensely numerous, constitute another source of testimony.  But less authority belongs in general to these, because they are often made loosely from memory alone.  Their testimony is chiefly valuable as corroborative.  “Patristic citations alone have very little weight; such citations, even when in accordance with a version, have but little more; but when a citation is in accordance with some ancient MSS. and translations, it possesses great corroborative value.  It is as confirming a reading known independently to exist, that citations are of the utmost importance.  If alone, or nearly alone, they may be looked at as mere casual adaptations of the words of the New Testament.”  Tregelles in Horne, vol. 4, ch. 34.

11.  The application of the above sources of criticism to the sacred text demands very extensive research and much sound judgment.  “Canons of criticism,” as they are called are valuable in their proper sphere; but, as Westcott remarks (ubi supra), “they are intended only to guide and not to dispense with the exercise of tact and scholarship.  The student will judge for himself how far they are applicable in every particular case; and no exhibition of general principles can supersede the necessity of a careful examination of the characteristics of separate witnesses, and of groups of witnesses.”

We bring this subject to a close by an enumeration of the last six of the thirteen rules laid down by Westcott.

8.  “The agreement of ancient MSS., or of MSS. containing an ancient text, with all the ancient versions and citations marks a certain reading.”