The third great Italian was Victor Emman’uel, king of Sardinia.  He approved of a limited monarchy, like that of England, instead of the corrupt despotisms which existed in most of the Italian peninsula.  He knew how to use men like Cavour and Garibaldi to achieve the national ambitions.  By a popular vote in each part of Italy Victor Emmanuel was accepted as king of the united nation.  The country was not ready for a republic; but Victor Emmanuel proved a wise national leader, willing to reign, according to a written constitution under which the people’s representatives had the determining voice in the government.  In 1870 the king entered Rome and early the next year proclaimed the city to be the capital of Italy.

Belgium.—­The country we now know as Belgium has had a very checkered history.  At one time or another it has been controlled by German, French, Spanish, and Austrian rulers.  At the opening of the nineteenth century it was annexed to the kingdom of Holland (1815).  But a revolt took place in 1830, and the Belgians separated from the Dutch and chose a king for themselves.  Their constitution declares that the government is a “constitutional, representative, and hereditary monarchy.”  The government is largely in the control of the people or their representatives.  There is one voter for every five persons in the population, nearly the same proportion as in the United States.  In 1839 the principal states of Europe agreed to recognize Belgium’s independence, and in case of war among themselves to treat her territory as neutral land, not to be invaded.  This treaty was signed by Prussia as well as by Austria, France, Great Britain, and Russia.  The treaty was again acknowledged by Prussia in 1870.  It was in violation of these treaties, as we shall see, that Prussian and other German troops invaded Belgium on August 4, 1914.

France.—­In 1789 France entered upon a period of revolution.  The old monarchy was shortly overthrown, and with it went aristocracy and all the inequalities of the Middle Ages.  A republic, however, did not long endure; and Napoleon Bonaparte used his position as a successful general to establish a new monarchy called the French Empire.  After Napoleon’s downfall, the allied monarchs of Europe restored the old line of kings in France.  But the country had outgrown despotism.  A revolution in 1830 deposed one king and set up another who was ready to rule under the terms of a constitution.  In 1848 this monarchy was displaced and the second French republic was established.  But again a Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon I, seized the government and established a second empire, calling himself Napoleon III.  He aped the ways of his great predecessor and tried by foreign conquest or annexation in Africa, Italy, and Mexico to dazzle the French people.  But he was never popular, and his reign closed in the defeat and disgrace of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), for which he was partly responsible.