Democratic movements.—­During the nineteenth century the people of Europe were restive under the rule of kings, and gradually governments controlled in greater or less degree by the people were established.  Almost every decade saw popular uprisings in some of the European states.  About 1820 insurrections occurred in Greece, in Spain, and in southern Italy; and the Spanish American colonies revolted from the mother country.  In 1830 popular uprisings took place in France, Belgium, Germany, Poland, and other places.  In 1848 a far more serious movement occurred, which overthrew the French monarchy and established a republic.  From France the flame of liberty lighted fires of insurrection in Germany, Austria, Poland, and Italy.  Similar attempts were made at later times.  As a result of these popular uprisings and of the growing education of all classes of the people, manhood suffrage and representative institutions were established in most of the European states.

National aspirations.—­The Holy Allies had refused to recognize the right of nations to independent existence.  They had bartered peoples and provinces “as if they were chattels and pawns in a game.”  But when the peoples tried to found democratic governments, they often discovered that the quickest and surest way was to unite under one government all who belonged to a given nationality.  Thus the last hundred years in Europe has witnessed the erection of a number of new national states created by throwing off the yoke of some foreign ruler.  Among the new nations thus established were (1) Belgium, freed from the kingdom of Holland; (2) Greece, Serbia, Roumania, Bulgaria, and Albania, freed from Turkish rule; (3) Italy, united out of territories controlled by petty sovereigns and Austrian rulers; (4) Norway, separated from Sweden.  The same period saw also the unification of a number of German states into the German Empire.  But during this time several races were unsuccessful in obtaining independence, among which we may note the Poles (in Russia, Prussia, and Austria), the Czechs (checks), or Bohemians (in northern Austria), the Finns (in the northwestern part of the Russian Empire), and the Slavic people in the southern part of Austria-Hungary.

Industrial development.—­The nineteenth century was not only a period of political change in Europe.  It was also a time of great changes in the general welfare of the people.  It witnessed a remarkable alteration in everyday employments and habits.  In 1800 a great part of the population was engaged in agriculture.  Manufacturing and commerce were looked upon as of minor importance.  The goods that were produced were made by hand labor in the workman’s own home.  Beginning first in England about 1750 and extending to the Continent between 1820 and 1860, there came a great industrial change.  The steam engine was applied to spinning, weaving, and countless other operations which previously