which threatened from abroad.  The North was girding itself for a fresh, onset on England.  The Scandinavian peoples had drawn together into their kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway; and it was no longer in isolated bands but in national hosts that they were about to seek conquests in the South.  As AEthelred drew to manhood some chance descents on the coast told of this fresh stir in the North, and the usual result of the northman’s presence was seen in new risings among the Welsh.

[Sidenote:  AEthelred]

In 991 ealdorman Brihtnoth of East-Anglia fell in battle with a Norwegian force at Maldon, and the withdrawal of the pirates had to be bought by money.  AEthelwine too died at this moment, and the death of the two ealdormen left AEthelred free to act as King.  But his aim was rather to save the Crown from his nobles than England from the northmen.  Handsome and pleasant of address, the young King’s pride showed itself in a string of imperial titles, and his restless and self-confident temper drove him to push the pretensions of the Crown to their furthest extent.  His aim throughout his reign was to free himself from the dictation of the great nobles, and it was his indifference to their “rede” or counsel that won him the name of “AEthelred the Redeless.”  From the first he struck boldly at his foes, and AElfric, the ealdorman of Central Wessex, whom the death of his rival AEthelwine left supreme in the realm, was driven possibly by fear to desert to a Danish force which he was sent in 992 to drive from the coast.  AEthelred turned from his triumph at home to meet the forces of the Danish and Norwegian kings, Swein and Olaf, which anchored off London in 994.  His policy through-out was a policy of diplomacy rather than of arms, and a treaty of subsidy gave time for intrigues which parted the invaders till troubles at home drew both again to the North.  AEthelrod took quick advantage of his success at home and abroad; the place of the great ealdormen in the royal councils was taken by court-thegns, in whom we see the rudiments of a ministry, while the king’s fleet attacked the pirates’ haunts in Cumberland and the Cotentin.  But in spite of all this activity the news of a fresh invasion found England more weak and broken than ever.  The rise of the “new men” only widened the breach between the court and the great nobles, and their resentment showed itself in delays which foiled every attempt of AEthelred to meet the pirate-bands who still clung to the coast.

[Sidenote:  Swein]

They came probably from the other side of the Channel, and it was to clear them away as well as secure himself against Swein’s threatened descent that AEthelred took a step which brought England in contact with a land over-sea.  Normandy, where the northmen had settled a hundred years before, was now growing into a great power, and it was to win the friendship of Normandy and to close its harbours against Swein that AEthelred in 1002 took the Norman Duke’s daughter,