=The Powers of the Federal Government.=—­On the question of the powers to be conferred upon the new government there was less occasion for a serious dispute.  Even the delegates from the small states agreed with those from Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia that new powers should be added to those intrusted to Congress by the Articles of Confederation.  The New Jersey plan as well as the Virginia plan recognized this fact.  Some of the delegates, like Hamilton and Madison, even proposed to give Congress a general legislative authority covering all national matters; but others, frightened by the specter of nationalism, insisted on specifying each power to be conferred and finally carried the day.

Taxation and Commerce.—­There were none bold enough to dissent from the proposition that revenue must be provided to pay current expenses and discharge the public debt.  When once the dispute over the apportionment of direct taxes among the slave states was settled, it was an easy matter to decide that Congress should have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises.  In this way the national government was freed from dependence upon stubborn and tardy legislatures and enabled to collect funds directly from citizens.  There were likewise none bold enough to contend that the anarchy of state tariffs and trade discriminations should be longer endured.  When the fears of the planting states were allayed and the “bargain” over the importation of slaves was reached, the convention vested in Congress the power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce.

National Defense.—­The necessity for national defense was realized, though the fear of huge military establishments was equally present.  The old practice of relying on quotas furnished by the state legislatures was completely discredited.  As in the case of taxes a direct authority over citizens was demanded.  Congress was therefore given full power to raise and support armies and a navy.  It could employ the state militia when desirable; but it could at the same time maintain a regular army and call directly upon all able-bodied males if the nature of a crisis was thought to require it.

The “Necessary and Proper” Clause.—­To the specified power vested in Congress by the Constitution, the advocates of a strong national government added a general clause authorizing it to make all laws “necessary and proper” for carrying into effect any and all of the enumerated powers.  This clause, interpreted by that master mind, Chief Justice Marshall, was later construed to confer powers as wide as the requirements of a vast country spanning a continent and taking its place among the mighty nations of the earth.