might spontaneously produce such poems as the Tiruvacagam.  Such ideas as God’s love for human souls and the soul’s struggle to be worthy of that love are found in other Indian religions besides Tamil Sivaism and in their earlier forms cannot be ascribed to Christian influence, but it must be admitted that the poems of the Sittars show an extraordinary approximation to the language of devotional literature in Europe.  If, as Caldwell thinks, these compositions are as recent as the sixteenth or seventeenth century, there is no chronological difficulty in supposing their contents to be inspired by Christian ideas.  But the question rather is, would Portuguese Catholicism or corrupt Nestorianism have inspired poems denouncing idolatry and inculcating the purest theism?  Scepticism on this point is permissible.  I am inclined to think that the influence of Christianity as well as the much greater influence of Mohammedanism was mostly indirect.  They imported little in the way of custom and dogma but they strengthened the idea which naturally accompanies sectarianism, namely, that it is reasonable and proper for a religion to inculcate the worship of one all-sufficient power.  But that this idea can flourish in surroundings repugnant to both Christianity and Islam is shown by the sect of Lingayats.

The resemblances to Christianity in Vishnuism are on a larger scale than the corresponding phenomena in Sivaism.  In most parts of India, from Assam to Madras, the worship of Vishnu and his incarnations has assumed the form of a monotheism which, if frequently turning into pantheism, still persistently inculcates loving devotion to a deity who is himself moved by love for mankind.  The corresponding phase of Sivaism is restricted to certain periods and districts of southern India.  The doctrine of bhakti, or devotional faith, is common to Vishnuites and Sivaites, but is more prominent among the former.  It has often been conjectured to be due to Christian influence but the conjecture is, I think, wrong, for the doctrine is probably pre-Christian.  Panini[1083] appears to allude to it, and the idea of loving devotion to God is fully developed in the Svetasvatara Upanishad and the Bhagavad-gita, works of doubtful date it is true, but in my opinion anterior to the Christian era and on any hypothesis not much posterior to it.  Some time must have elapsed after the death of Christ before Christianity could present itself in India as an influential doctrine.  Also bhakti does not make its first appearance as something new and full grown.  The seed, the young plant and the flower can all be found on Indian soil.  So, too, the idea that God became man for the sake of mankind is a gradual Indian growth.  In the Veda Vishnu takes three steps for the good of men.  It is probable that his avataras were recognized some centuries before Christ and, if this is regarded as not demonstrable, it cannot be denied that the analogous conception of Buddhas who visit the world to save and instruct