The peculiar doctrine of the Buddhist Kalacakra is that there is an Adi-Buddha,[1028] or primordial Buddha God, from whom all other Buddhas are derived.  It is possible that it represents a last effort of Central Asian Buddhism to contend with Moslims, which instead of denying the bases of Mohammed’s teaching tried to show that monotheism (like everything else) could be found in Buddhism—­a method of argument frequent in India.  The doctrine of the Adi-Buddha was not however new or really important.  For the Indian mind it is implied in the dogma of the three bodies of Buddha, for the Sambhogakaya is practically an Indian Deva and the Dharmakaya is the pantheos or Brahma.  Under the influence of the Kalacakra the Lamas did not become theists in the sense of worshipping one supreme God but they identified with the Adi-Buddha some particular deity, varying according to the sects.  Thus Samantabhadra, who usually ranks as a Bodhisattva—­that is as inferior to a Buddha—­was selected by some for the honour.  The logic of this is hard to explain but it is clearly analogous to the procedure, common to the oldest and newest phases of Hindu religion, by which a special deity is declared to be not only all the other gods but also the universal spirit.[1029] It does not appear that the Kalacakra Tantra met with general acceptance.  It is unknown in China and Japan and not well known in Nepal.[1030]

The Kalacakra adopted all the extravagances of the Tantras and provided the principal Buddhas and Bodhisattvas with spouses, even giving one to the Adi-Buddha himself.[1031] Extraordinary as this is from a Buddhist point of view, it is little more than the Hindu idea that the Supreme Being became male and female for the purpose of producing the universe.  But the general effect of the system on monastic and religious life was bad.  Celibacy was not observed; morals, discipline and doctrine alike deteriorated.  A striking instance is afforded by the ceremonies used by Pagspa when receiving Kublai into the Church.  The Tibetan prelate presumably wished to give the Emperor what was best and most important in his creed and selected a formula for invoking a demoniac Buddha.

The latest phase of Lamaism was inaugurated by Tsong-kha-pa’s reformation and is still vigorous.  Politically and socially it was of capital importance, for it disciplined the priesthood and enabled the heads of the Church to rule Tibet.  In doctrine it was not marked by the importation of new ideas, but it emphasized the worship of Avalokita as the patron of Tibet, it systematized the existing beliefs about reincarnation, thereby creating a powerful hierarchy, and it restricted Tantrism, without abolishing it.  But many monasteries persistently refused to accept these reforms.

Tibetan mythology and ceremonial have been described in detail by Grunwedel, Waddell and others.  The pantheon is probably the largest in the world.  All heaven and hell seem to meet in it.  The originals of the deities are nearly all to be found in Nepalese Buddhism[1032] and the perplexing multiplicity of Tibet is chiefly due to the habit of representing one deity in many forms and aspects, thus making him a dozen or more personages both for art and for popular worship.  The adoration of saints and their images is also more developed than in Nepal and forms some counterpoise to the prevalent demonolatry.