nearest analogy to a Chinese religion.  There are, I believe, some few persons for whom spiritualism is a definite, sufficient and exclusive creed.  These may be compared to the Buddhist clergy with a small minority of the laity.  But the majority of those who are interested or even believe in spiritualism, do not identify themselves with it in this way.  They attend seances as their curiosity or affections may prompt, but these beliefs and practices do not prevent them from also belonging to a Christian denomination.  Imagine spiritualism to be better organized as an institution and you will have a fairly accurate picture of the average Chinaman’s attitude to Buddhism and Taoism.  One may also compare the way in which English poets use classical mythology. Lycidas, for instance, is an astounding compound of classical and biblical ideas, and Milton does not hesitate to call the Supreme Being Jove in a serious passage.  Yet Milton’s Christianity has never, so far as I know, been called in question.

There is an obvious historical parallel between the religions of the Chinese and early Roman Empires.  In both, the imperial and official worship was political and indifferent to dogma without being hostile, provided no sectary refused to call the Emperor Son of Heaven or sacrifice to his image.  In both, ample provision was made outside the state cult for allaying the fears of superstition, as well as for satisfying the soul’s thirst for knowledge and emotion.  A Roman magistrate of the second century A.D. may have offered official sacrifices, propitiated local genii, and attended the mysteries of Mithra, in the same impartial way as Chinese magistrates took part a few years ago in the ceremonies of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism.  In both cases there was entire liberty to combine with the official religious routine private beliefs and observances incongruous with it and often with one another:  in both there was the same essential feature that no deity demanded exclusive allegiance.  The popular polytheism of China is indeed closely analogous to the paganism of the ancient world.[569] Hinduism contains too much personal religion and real spiritual feeling to make the resemblance perfect, but in dealing with Apollo, Mars and Venus a Roman of the early Empire seems to have shown the mixture of respect and scepticism which is characteristic of China.

This attitude implies not only a certain want of conviction but also a utilitarian view of religion.  The Chinese visit a temple much as they visit a shop or doctor, for definite material purposes, and if it be asked whether they are a religious people in the better sense of the word, I am afraid the answer must be in the negative.  It is with regret that I express this opinion and I by no means imply that there are not many deeply religious persons in China, but whereas in India the obvious manifestations of superstition are a superficial disease and the heart of the people is keenly sensitive to questions of personal salvation and speculative theology, this cannot be said of the masses in China, where religion, as seen, consists of superstitious rites and the substratum of thought and feeling is small.