of their settlement in Europe, and some of the battle-axes or shields which they manufactured from this metal were beautifully chased with exquisite decorative patterns, equalling in taste the ornamental designs still employed by the Polynesian islanders.  Such weapons, however, were doubtless intended for the use of the chieftains only, and were probably employed as insignia of rank alone.  They are still discovered in the barrows which cover the remains of the early chieftains; though it is possible that they may really belong to the monuments of a yet earlier race.  But iron was certainly employed by the English, at least, from about the first century of the Christian era, and its use was perhaps introduced into the marshlands of Sleswick by the Germanic conquerors of the north.  Even at this early date, abundant proof exists of mercantile intercourse with the Roman world (probably through Pannonia), whereby the alien culture of the south was already engrafted in part upon the low civilisation of the native English.  Amber was then exported from the Baltic, while gold, silver, and glass beads were given in return.  Roman coins are discovered in Low German tombs of the first five centuries in Sleswick, Holstein, Friesland, and the Isles; and Roman patterns are imitated in the iron weapons and utensils of the same period.  Gold byzants of the fifth century prove an intercourse with Constantinople at the exact date of the colonisation of Britain.  From the very earliest moment when we catch a glimpse of its nature, the home-grown English culture had already begun to be modified by the superior arts of Rome.  Even the alphabet was known and used in its Runic form, though the absence of writing materials caused its employment to be restricted to inscriptions on wooden tablets, on rude stone monuments, or on utensils of metal-work.  A golden drinking-horn found in Sleswick, and engraved with the maker’s name, referred to the middle of the fourth century, contains the earliest known specimen of the English language.

The early English society was founded entirely on the tie of blood.  Every clan or family lived by itself and formed a guild for mutual protection, each kinsman being his brother’s keeper, and bound to avenge his death by feud with the tribe or clan which had killed him.  This duty of blood-revenge was the supreme religion of the race.  Moreover, the clan was answerable as a whole for the ill-deeds of all its members; and the fine payable for murder or injury was handed over by the family of the wrong-doer to the family of the injured man.

Each little village of the old English community possessed a general independence of its own, and lay apart from all the others, often surrounded by a broad belt or mark of virgin forest.  It consisted of a clearing like those of the American backwoods, where a single family or kindred had made its home, and preserved its separate independence intact.  Each of these families was known by the name of its real or supposed