FOOTNOTE: 

[1] The Dutch has ‘troppen’ = to gather round (cf. our ’trooping the colour’).  De With’s corresponding order has ’dat zij allen bij den anderen ... gesloten zou den blijven.’ Supra, p. 86.

II

ORDERS ISSUED DURING THE WAR
1653 AND 1654

INTRODUCTORY

The earliest known ‘Fighting Instructions’ in any language which aimed at a single line ahead as a battle formation, were issued by the Commonwealth’s ‘generals-at-sea’ on March 29, 1653, in the midst of the Dutch War.  This is placed beyond doubt by an office copy amongst the Duke of Portland’s MSS. at Welbeck Abbey.[1] It is of high importance for the history of naval tactics that we are at last able to fix the date of these memorable orders.  Endless misapprehension on the subject of our battle formations during the First Dutch War has been caused by a chronological error into which Mr. Granville Penn was led in his Memorials of Penn (Appendix L).  Sir William Penn’s copy of these Instructions is merely dated ’March 1653,’[2] and his biographer hazarded the very natural conjecture that, as this is an ‘old style’ date, it meant ‘March 1654.’  This would have been true of any day in March before the 25th, but as we now can fix the date as the 29th, we know the year is really 1653 and not 1654.[3] There was perhaps some anxiety on Mr. Penn’s part to get his hero some share in the orders, and as William Penn was not appointed one of the ‘generals-at-sea’ till December 2, 1653, he could not officially have had the credit of orders issued in the previous March.  This point however is also set at rest by the Welbeck copy, which besides the date has the signatures of the generals, and they are those of Blake, Deane and Monck.  Penn did not sign them at all, but this really in no way affects his claim as a tactical reformer.  For as he was vice-admiral of the fleet and an officer of high reputation, his share in the orders was probably as great as that of anyone else.

The winter of 1652-3 was the turning point of the war.  The summer campaign had shown how serious the struggle was to be, and no terms for ending it could be arranged.  Large reinforcements consequently had been ordered, and Monck and Deane nominated to assist Blake as joint generals-at-sea for the next campaign.  Four days later, on November 30, 1652, Blake had been defeated by Tromp off Dungeness, and several of his captains were reported to have behaved badly.  An inquiry was ordered, and the famous ‘Laws of War and Ordinances of the Sea,’ prepared by Sir Harry Vane by order of Parliament for the better enforcement of discipline, were put in force.  Notwithstanding these vigorous efforts to increase the strength and efficiency of the sea service, it was not till after the first action of the new campaign that an attempt was made to improve