In strange contrast to this programme of reform, the aliens, who had opposed the charter of Runnymede, were among the lords by whose counsel and consent the charter of Bristol was issued.  In its weakness the new government sought to stimulate the zeal both of the foreign mercenaries and of the loyal barons by grants and privileges which seriously entrenched upon the royal authority.  Falkes de Breaute was confirmed in the custody of a compact group of six midland shires, besides the earldom of Devon, and the “county of the Isle of Wight,"[1] which he guarded in the interests of his wife and stepson.  Savary de Mauleon, who in despair of his old master’s success had crossed over to Poitou before John’s death, was made warden of the castle of Bristol.  Randolph of Chester was consoled for the loss of the regency by the renewal of John’s recent grant of the Honour of Lancaster which was by this time definitely recognised as a shire.[2]

    [1] Histoire des ducs de Normandie, etc., p. 181.

    [2] Tait, Medieval Manchester and the Beginnings of
    Lancashire, p. 180.

The war assumed the character of a crusade.  The royalist troops wore white crosses on their garments, and were assured by the clergy of certain salvation.  The cruel and purposeless ravaging of the enemy’s country, which had occupied John’s last months of life, became rare, though partisans, such as Falkes de Breaute, still outvied the French in plundering monasteries and churches.  The real struggle became a war of castles.  Louis endeavoured to complete his conquest of the south-east by the capture of the royal strongholds, which still limited his power to the open country.  At first the French prince had some successes.  In November he increased his hold on the Home counties by capturing the Tower of London, by forcing Hertford to surrender, and by pressing the siege of Berkhampsted.  As Christmas approached the royalists proposed a truce.  Louis agreed on the condition that Berkhampsted should be surrendered, and early in 1217 both parties held councils, the royalists at Oxford and the barons at Cambridge.  There was vague talk of peace, but the war was renewed, and Louis captured Hedingham and Orford in Essex, and besieged the castles of Colchester and Norwich.  Then another truce until April 26 was concluded, on the condition that the royalists should surrender these two strongholds.

Both sides had need to pause.  Louis, at the limit of his resources, was anxious to obtain men and money from France.  He was not getting on well with his new subjects.  The eastern counties grumbled at his taxes.  Dissensions arose between the English and French elements in his host.  The English lords resented the grants and appointments he gave to his countrymen.  The French nobles professed to despise the English as traitors.  When Hertford was taken, Robert FitzWalter demanded that its custody should be restored to him.  Louis roughly told