In judging the manner in which the Bolsheviki concluded peace with Germany, it is necessary to be on guard against prejudice engendered by the war and its passions.  The tragi-comedy of Brest-Litovsk, and the pitiable role of Trotzky, have naturally been linked together with the manner in which Lenine and his companions reached Russia with the aid of the German Government, the way in which all the well-known leaders of the Bolsheviki had deliberately weakened the morale of the troops at the front, and their persistent opposition to all the efforts of Kerensky to restore the fighting spirit of the army—­all these things combined have convinced many thoughtful and close observers that the Bolsheviki were in league with the Germans against the Allies.  Perhaps the time is not yet ripe for passing final judgment upon this matter.  Certainly there were ugly-looking incidents which appeared to indicate a close co-operation with the Germans.

There was, for example, the acknowledged fact that the Bolsheviki on seizing the power of government immediately entered into negotiations with the notorious “Parvus,” whose role as an agent of the German Government is now thoroughly established.  “Parvus” is the pseudonym of one of the most sinister figures in the history of the Socialist movement, Dr. Alexander Helfandt.  Born at Odessa, of German-Jewish descent, he studied in Germany and in the early eighteen-nineties attained prominence as a prolific and brilliant contributor to the German Socialist review, Die Neue Zeit.  He was early “exiled” from Russia, but it was suspected by a great many Socialists that in reality his “exile” was simply a device to cover employment in the Russian Secret Service as a spy and informer, for which the prestige he had gained in Socialist circles was a valuable aid.  When the Revolution of 1905 broke out Helfandt returned to Russia under the terms of the amnesty declared at that time.  He at once joined the Leninist section of the Social Democratic party, the Bolsheviki.  A scandal occurred some time later, when the connection of “Parvus” with the Russian Government was freely charged against him.  Among those who attacked him and accused him of being an agent-provocateur were Tseretelli, the Socialist-Revolutionist, and Miliukov, the leader of the Cadets.

Some years later, at the time of the uprisings in connection with the Young Turk movement, “Parvus” turned up in Constantinople, where he was presumably engaged in work for the German Government.  This was commonly believed in European political circles, though denied at the time by “Parvus” himself.  One thing is certain, namely, that although he was notoriously poor when he went there—­his financial condition was well known to his Socialist associates—­he returned at the beginning of 1915 a very rich man.  He explained his riches by saying that he had, while at Constantinople, Bucharest, and Sofia, successfully speculated in war wheat.  He wrote this explanation in the German Socialist paper,