Bhakti is often associated with the doctrine of the playfulness of God.  This idea—­so strange to Europe[433]—­may have its roots partly in the odd non-moral attributes of some early deities.  Thus the Rudra of the Satarudriya hymn is a queer character and a trickster.  But it soon takes a philosophical tinge and is used to explain the creation and working of the universe which is regarded not as an example of capricious, ironical, inscrutable action, but rather as manifesting easy, joyous movement and the exuberant rhythm of a dance executed for its own sake.  The European can hardly imagine a sensible person doing anything without an object:  he thinks it almost profane to ascribe motiveless action to the Creator:  he racks his brain to discover any purpose in creation which is morally worthy and moderately in accord with the facts of experience.  But he can find none.  The Hindu, on the contrary, argues that God being complete and perfect cannot be actuated by aims or motives, for all such impulses imply a desire to obtain something, whereas a perfect and complete being is one which by its very definition needs neither change nor addition.  Therefore, whatever activity is ascribed to the creator must not be thought of as calculating, purposeful endeavour, but as spontaneous, exultant movement, needing and admitting no explanation, and analogous to sport and play rather than to the proceedings of prudent people.  This view of the divine activity is expounded by so serious a writer as Sankara in his commentary on the Vedanta Sutras, and it also finds mythological expression in numerous popular legends.  The Tamil Puranas describe the sixty-four miracles of Siva as his amusements:  his laughter and joyous movements brighten all things, and the street minstrels sing “He sports in the world.  He sports in the soul."[434] He is supposed to dance in the Golden Hall of the temple at Chidambaram and something of the old legends of the Satarudriya hangs about such popular titles as the Deceiver and the Maniac (Kalvar) and the stories of his going about disguised and visiting his worshippers in the form of a mendicant.  The idea of sport and playfulness is also prominent in Vishnuism.  It is a striking feature in the cultus of both the infant and the youthful Krishna, but I have not found it recorded in the severer worship of Rama.

Another feature of Hindu sects is the extravagant respect paid to Gurus or teachers.  The sanctity of the Guru is an old conviction in India.  By common consent he is entitled to absolute obedience and offences against him are heinous crimes.  But in sectarian literature there appears a new claim, namely, that the Guru in some way is or represents the god whose worship he teaches.  If the deity is thought of primarily as a saviour, the Guru is said to deliver from suffering and hell:  if he requires surrender and sacrifice, then person and possessions must be dedicated to the Guru.  Membership of a sect can be attained only by initiation at the