of reason itself.  While organized language is clearly something that as such we do not share with the lower animals, nevertheless we cannot regard the communication of ideas or states of feeling by sound as an exclusive property of mankind.  All are familiar with the difference between the whine and the bark of a dog and with the widely different feelings that are expressed by these contrasted sounds.  And we know too that dogs can understand what many of their master’s words signify, as when a shepherd gives directions to his collie.  We could even go further down in the scale and find in the shrill chirping of the katydid at the mating season a still more elementary combination of significant instinctive sound elements.  To the comparative student the speech of man differs from these lower modes of communication only in its greater complexity, and in its employment of more numerous and varied sounds,—­in a word, only in the higher degree of its evolution.  And it is even more evident that the diverse forms of speech employed by various races have gradually grown to be what they now are.

At the outset it is well to distinguish between writing, as the conventional mode of symbolizing words, and spoken language itself; the two have been more independent in their evolution than we may be wont to believe.  Speech came first in historical development, just as a child now learns to talk before it can understand and use printed or written letters.  Furthermore, many races still exist who have a well-developed form of language without any concrete way of recording it.  It is true, of course, that back of the conventions of speech and writing are the ideas themselves that find expression in the one way or the other, or even by the still more primitive use of signs and gestures.  But it is not with these ultimate elements of thought that we are now concerned; our task is to learn, first, what evidences are discoverable which show that the property of human language in general has originated by evolution, and then, in the second place, to perceive how this development proves an evolution of one group of ultimate ideas, namely, human concepts of the modal value of words and symbols as expressions of ideas themselves.

A simple common-sense treatment of obvious facts will greatly facilitate our progress.  We know very well that the English we speak to-day differs in many ways from the language of Elizabethan times, and that the former is a direct descendant of the other.  The latter, in turn, was a product of Norman French and Anglo-Saxon,—­a combination of certain elements of both, but identical with neither of its immediate parents.  The Saxon tongue itself has a history that leads back to King Alfred’s time and earlier.  Thus we are already aware of the fact that our speech has truly evolved, like the physical structure of the men who employ it; and we know, too, how readily new words are adopted into current English, like tabu from Polynesia, or garage from the French, showing that language is even now in process of evolution.