silk.  Chapman (1893) has drawn attention to the fact that among the more highly organised moths the pupa remains in the cocoon, the emergence being entirely left to the imago, while the pupae of the more primitive moths work their way partly out of the cocoon before the final moult begins.  In the latter case, the cremaster is anchored by a strand of silk which allows a certain degree of emergence, and the pupa has rows of spines on its abdominal segments, of which a greater number retain the power of mutual motion than in those pupae which do not come out of their cocoons.

[Illustration:  Fig. 23.  Pupa of White Butterfly (Pieris), side view; f, feeler; w, wing; sp, spiracle; p, anal pro-leg; cr, cremaster.  Magnified 8 times.  In part after Hatchett-Jackson, Trans.  Linn.  Soc. 1900, and Tutt’s British Butterflies.]

While the pupa on the whole resembles the imago that is to emerge from it, there are not a few cases in which a special structure necessary for some contingency in pupal life is retained or adopted in this stage.  A butterfly pupa, like the imago, has no mandibles, but in the case of the Caddis-flies (Trichoptera) and two families of small moths, the most primitive of all Lepidoptera, the pupa, like the larva, has well-developed mandibles.  These enable the caddis pupa to bite its way out of the shortened larval case in which it has pupated, and then to swim upwards through the water ready for the caddis-fly’s emergence into the air.  Pupae that are submerged require special breathing-organs.  In the previous chapter (p. 77) mention was made of the gnat’s aquatic larva with its tail-spiracles adapted for procuring atmospheric air through the surface-film.  The pupa of the gnat[10] also has ’respiratory trumpets’ serving the same purpose, but these are a pair of processes on the prothorax, so that the pupa, which is fairly active, hangs from the surface-film with its abdomen pointing downwards through the water.  This change of position is correlated with the necessity for the imago to emerge into the air; were the pupa to hang head downwards as the larva does, the gnat would perforce have to dive into the water.  With the beautifully adapted transfer of the functional spiracles, their position is appropriately arranged for the gnat’s emergence at the surface, and the empty pupal cuticle floats serving the insect as a raft.  On this it rests securely and the crumpled wings have opportunity to expand and harden before the insect takes to flight.

[10] See Frontispiece, B.

The aquatic pupae of other Diptera, many species of the midges Chironomus and Simulium for example, breathe dissolved air by means of tufts of thread-like gills, which arise on either side of the prothorax.  The pupae of Simulium rest in their curious little cup-like dwellings, attached to submerged stones or plants.  The Chironomus pupa is usually found in an elongate gelatinous case adhering to a stone.