The separation of the sexes was very decided in Parthia.  The women took their meals, and passed the greater portion of their life, apart from the men.  Veils were commonly worn, as in modern Mohammedan countries; and it was regarded as essential to female delicacy that women, whether married or single, should converse freely with no males but either their near relations or eunuchs.  Adultery was punished with great severity; but divorce was not difficult, and women of rank released themselves from the nuptial bond on light grounds of complaint, without much trouble.  Polygamy was the established law; and every Parthian was entitled, besides his chief wife, to maintain as many concubines as he thought desirable.  Some of the nobles supported an excessive number; but the expenses of the seraglio prevented the generality from taking much advantage of the indulgence which the law permitted.

The degree of refinement and civilization which the Parthians reached is difficult to determine with accuracy.  In mimetic art their remains certainly do not show much taste or sense of beauty.  There is some ground to believe that their architecture had merit; but the existing monuments can scarcely be taken as representations of pure Parthian work, and may have owed their excellence (in some measure, at any rate) to foreign influence.  Still, the following particulars, for which there is good evidence, seem to imply that the nation had risen in reality far above that “barbarism” which it was the fashion of the Greek and Roman writers to ascribe to it.  In the first place, the Parthians had a considerable knowledge of foreign languages.  Plutarch tells us that Orodes, the opponent of Crassus, was acquainted with the Greek language and literature, and could enjoy the representation of a play of Euripides.  The general possession of such knowledge, at any rate by the kings and the upper classes, seems to be implied by the use of the Greek letters and language in the legends upon coins and in inscriptions.  Other languages were also to some extent cultivated.  The later kings almost invariably placed a Semitic legend upon their coins; and there is one instance of a Parthian prince adopting an Aryan legend of the type known as Bactrian.  Josephus, moreover, regarded the Parthians as familiar with Hebrew, or Syro-Chaldaic, and wrote his history of the Jewish War in his own native tongue, before he put out his Greek version, for the benefit especially of the Parthians, among whom he declares that he had many readers.

Though the Parthians had, so far as we can tell, no native literature, yet writing was familiar to them, and was widely used in matters of business.  Not only were negotiations carried on with foreign powers by means of despatches, but the affairs of the empire generally were conducted by writing.  A custom-house system was established along the frontier, and all commodities liable to duty that entered the country were registered in a book at the time of entry by the