(6) Most of the larger and some of the smaller groups extend
    through several geological periods.

    (7) In each period, however, there are peculiar groups, found
    nowhere else, and extending through one or several formations.

    (8) Species of one genus, or genera of one family, occurring in
    the same geological time are more closely allied than those
    separated in time.

(9) As generally in geography no species or genus occurs in two very distant localities without being also found in intermediate places, so in geology the life of a species or genus has not been interrupted.  In other words, no group or species has come into existence twice.

    (10) The following law may be deduced from these facts:  Every
    species has come into existence coincident both in time and space
    with a pre-existing closely allied species.

This law agrees with, explains and illustrates all the facts connected with the following branches of the subject:  1st, the system of natural affinities; 2nd, the distribution of animals and plants in space; 3rd, the same in time, including all the phenomena of representative groups, and those which Prof.  Forbes supposed to manifest polarity; 4th, the phenomena of rudimentary organs.  We will briefly endeavour to show its bearing upon each of these.

If [this] law be true, it follows that the natural series of affinities will also represent the order in which the several species came into existence, each one having had for its immediate antetype a clearly allied species existing at the time of its origin....  If two or more species have been independently formed on the plan of a common antetype, then the series of affinities will be compound, and can only be represented by a forked or many-branched line....  Sometimes the series of affinities can be well represented for a space by a direct progression from species to species or from group to group, but it is generally found impossible so to continue.  There constantly occur two or more modifications of an organ or modifications of two distinct organs, leading us on to two distinct series of species, which at length differ so much from each other as to form distinct genera or families.  These are the parallel series or representative groups of naturalists, and they often occur in different countries, or are found fossil in different formations....  We thus see how difficult it is to determine in every case whether a given relation is an analogy or an affinity, for it is evident that as we go back along the parallel or divergent series, towards the common antetype, the analogy which existed between the two groups becomes an affinity....  Again, if we consider that we have only the fragments of this vast system, the stems and main branches being represented by extinct species of which we have no knowledge, while a vast mass of limbs and boughs