What is the cause of this state of warfare within society?  Which of the combatants is to blame?  Or is the blame to be laid equally on the shoulders of both?  In other words, are the conditions in which men live together in society of such a nature that crime is certain to flow from them; and is crime simply a reaction against the iniquity of existing social arrangements?  Or, on the other hand, does crime spring from the individual and his cosmical surroundings; and is it the product of forces over which society has little or no control?  These are questions which cannot be answered off-hand, they involve considerations of a most complicated character, and it is only after a careful examination of all the factors responsible for crime that a true solution can possibly be arrived at.  These factors are divisible into three great categories—­cosmical, social, and individual.[10] The cosmical factors of crime are climate and the variations of temperature; the social factors are the political, economic and moral conditions in the midst of which man lives as a member of society; the individual factors are a class of attributes inherent in the individual, such as descent, sex, age, bodily and mental characteristics.  These factors, it will be seen, can easily be reduced to two, the organism and its environment; but it will be more convenient to consider them under the three-fold division which has just been mentioned.  Before proceeding to do so, it may be as well to remark that in each case the several factors operate with different degrees of intensity.  It is often extremely difficult to disentangle them; and the more complex the society is in which a crime takes place, the greater is the combination and intricacy of the causes leading up to it.

    [10] Cf.  E. Ferri.  I Nuovi Orizzonti del Diritto e della Procedura
    Penale.

CHAPTER II.

CLIMATE AND CRIME.

Man’s existence depends upon physical surroundings; these surroundings have exercised an immense influence in modifying his organism, in shaping his social development, in moulding his character.  To enumerate all the external factors operating upon individual and social life is outside our present purpose, but they may be briefly summed up as climate, moisture, soil, the configuration of the earth’s surface, and the nature of its products.  These natural phenomena, either singly or in varying degrees of combination, have unquestionably played a most prominent part in making the different races of mankind what they at present are.  We have only to look at the low type of life exhibited by the primitive inhabitants of certain inhospitable regions of the globe to see how profoundly the physical structure of man is affected by his natural surroundings.  Even a comparatively slight difference of environment is not without effect upon the population subjected to its influence.  According to M. de Quatrefages, the bodily structure