and ha-Tzefirah took on a new lease of life, and grew from weeklies into dailies.  Voluminous annuals with rightful claims to scientific and literary importance, such as the ha-Asif ("The Harvest”) and Keneset Israel ("The Community of Israel”) in Warsaw, and other similar publications, began to make their appearance in Russia.  New literary forces began to rise from the ground, though only to attain their full bloom during the following years.  Taken as a whole, the ninth decade of the nineteenth century may well be designated as a period of transition from the older Haskalah movement to the more modern national revival.

4.  AMERICAN AND PALESTINIAN EMIGRATION

As for the emigration movement, which had begun during the storm and stress of the first pogrom year, this passive but only effective protest against the new Egyptian oppression proceeded at a slow pace.  The Jewish emigration from Russia to the United States served as a barometer of the persecutions endured by the Jews in the land of bondage.  During the first three years of the eighties the new movement showed violent fluctuations.  In 1881 there were 8193 emigrants; in 1882, 17,497; in 1883, 6907.  During the following three years, from 1884 to 1886, the movement remained practically on the same level, counting 15,000 to 17,000 emigrants annually.  But in the last three years of that decade, it gained considerably in volume, mounting in 1887 to 28,944, in 1888 to 31,256, and in 1889 to 31,889.  The exodus from Russia was undoubtedly stimulated by the law imposing a fine for evading military service and by the introduction of the educational percentage norm—­two restrictions which threw into bold relief the disproportionate relation between rights and duties in Russian Jewry.  In the Empire of the Tzars the Jews were denied the right of residence and the privilege of a school education, but forced at the same time to serve in the army.  In the United States they at once received full civil equality and free schooling without any compulsory military service.

It goes without saying that the emigrants who had no difficulty in obtaining equality of citizenship were nevertheless compelled, during their first years of residence in the New World, to engage in a severe struggle for their material existence.  Among the emigrants who came to America in those early years there were many young intellectuals who had given up their liberal careers in the land of bondage and were now dreaming of becoming plain agriculturists in the free republic.  They managed to obtain a following among the emigrant masses, and founded, in the face of extraordinary difficulties, and with the help of charitable organizations, a number of colonies and farms in various parts of the United States, in Louisiana, North and South Dakota, New Jersey, and elsewhere.  After a few years of vain struggling against material want and lack of adaptation to local conditions, a large number of these colonies were abandoned, and only a few of them have survived until to-day.