of boundaries and the maker of chaos and ooze.  Pretty much all early Japanese “history” is ooze; yet there are grave and learned men, even in the Constitutional Japan of the Meiji era—­masters in their arts and professions, graduates of technical and philosophical courses—­who solemnly talk about their “first emperor ascending the throne, B.C. 660,” and to whom the dragon-born, early Mikados, and their fellow-tribesmen, seen through the exaggerated mists of the Kojiki, are divine personages.

The Gon-gen in the Processions.

While living in Japan between 1870 and 1874, the writer used to enjoy watching and studying the long processions which celebrated the foundation of temples, national or local festivals, or the completion of some great public enterprise, such as the railway between T[=o]kio and Yokohama.  In rich costume, decoration, and representation most of the cultus-objects were marvels of art and skill.  Besides the gala dresses and uniforms, the fantastic decorations and personal adornments, the dances which represented the comedies and tragedies of the gods and the striking scenes in the Kojiki, there wore colossal images of Kami, Bodhisattvas, Gon-gen, Dai Mi[=o] Jin, and of imps, oni, mythical animal forms and imaginary monsters.[44] More interesting than anything else, however, were the male and female figures, set high upon triumphal cars having many tiers, and arrayed in characteristic primeval, ancient, medieval, or early modern dress.  Some were of scowling, others of benign visage.  In some years, everyone of the eight hundred and eight streets of Yedo sent its contribution of men, money, decorations, or vehicles.

As seen by four kinds of spectators, the average ignorant native, the Shint[=o]ist, the learned Buddhist, and the critical historical scholar, these effigies represented three different characters or creations.  Especially were those divine personages called Gon-gen worth the study of the foreign observer.

(1) The common boor or streetman saluted, for example, this or that Dai Mi[=o] Jin, as the great illustrious spirit or god of its particular district.  To this spirit and image he prayed; in his honor he made offerings; his wrath he feared; and his smile he hoped to win, for the Gon-gen was a divine being.

(2) To the Shint[=o]ist, who hated Buddhism and the Riy[=o]bu Shint[=o] which had overlaid his ancestral faith, and who scorned and tabooed this Chinese term Dai Mi[=o] Jin, this or that image represented a divine ancestor whose name had in it many Japanese syllables, with no defiling Chinese sounds, and who was the Kami or patron deity of this or that neighborhood.