Amid this general perturbation of the old political order the year 1494, marked in its first month by the death of King Ferdinand, began—­’a year,’ to quote from Guicciardini, ’the most unfortunate for Italy, the very first in truth of our disastrous years, since it opened the door to numberless and horrible calamities, in which it may be said that a great portion of the world has subsequently shared.’  The expectation and uneasiness of the whole nation were proportioned to the magnitude of the coming change.  On every side the invasion of the French was regarded with that sort of fascination which a very new and exciting event is wont to inspire.  In one mood the Italians were inclined to hail Charles as a general pacificator and restorer of old liberties.[1] Savonarola had preached of him as the flagellum Dei, the minister appointed to regenerate the Church and purify the font of spiritual life in the peninsula.  In another frame of mind they shuddered to think what the advent of the barbarians—­so the French were called—­might bring upon them.  It was universally agreed that Lodovico by his invitation had done no more than bring down, as it were, by a breath the avalanche which had been long impending.  ’Not only the preparations made by land and sea, but also the consent of the heavens and of men, announced the woes in store for Italy.  Those who pretend either by art or divine inspiration to the knowledge of the future, proclaimed unanimously that greater and more frequent changes, occurrences more strange and awful than had for many centuries been seen in any part of the world, were at hand.’  After enumerating divers signs and portents, such as the passing day after day in the region round Arezzo of innumerable armed men mounted on gigantic horses with a hideous din of drums and trumpets, the great historian resumes:  ’These things filled the people with incredible fear; for, long before, they had been terrified by the reputation of the power of the French and of their fierceness, seeing that histories are full of their deeds—­how they had already overrun the whole of Italy, sacked the city of Rome with fire and sword, subdued many provinces of Asia, and at one time or another smitten with their arms all quarters of the world.’

[1] This was the strictly popular as opposed to the aristocratic feeling.  The common folk, eager for novelty and smarting under the bad rule of monsters like the Aragonese princes, expected in Charles VIII. a Messiah, and cried ‘Benedictus qui venit in nomine Domini.’  See passages quoted in a note below.

Among all the potentates of Italy, Alfonso of Naples had the most to dread; for against him the invasion was specially directed.  No time was to be lost.  He assembled his allies at Vicovaro near Tivoli in July and explained to them his theory of resistance.  The allies were Florence, Rome, Bologna, and all the minor powers of Romagna.[1] For once the southern and the middle states of Italy were united against