Long before a true constitutional complexion had been given to any Italian State but Venice, parties had sprung up, and taken such firm root that the subsequent history of the republics was the record of their factions.  To this point I have already alluded; but it is too important to be passed by without further illustration.  The great division of Guelf and Ghibelline introduced a vital discord into each section of the people, by establishing two antagonistic theories respecting the right of supreme government.  Then followed subordinate quarrels of the nobles with the townsfolk, schisms between the wealthier and poorer burghers, jealousies of the artisans and merchants, and factions for one or other eminent family.  These different elements of discord succeed each other with astonishing rapidity; and as each gives place to another, it leaves a portion of its mischief rankling in the body politic, until last there remains no possibility of self-government.[1] The history of Florence, or Genoa, or Pistoja would supply us with ample illustrations of each of these obstacles to the formation of a solid political temperament.  But Siena furnishes perhaps the best example of the extent to which such feuds could disturb a state.  The way in which this city conducted its government for a long course of years, justified Varchi in calling it ’a jumble, so to speak, and chaos of republics, rather than a well-ordered and disciplined commonwealth.’[2] The discords of Siena were wholly internal.  They proceeded from the wrangling of five successive factions, or Monti, as the people of Siena called them.  The first of these was termed the Monte de’ Nobili; for Siena, like all Italian free burghs, had originally been controlled by certain noble families, who formed the people and excluded the other citizens from offices of state.  In course of time the plebeians acquired wealth, and the nobles split into parties among themselves.  To such a pitch were the quarrels of these nobles carried, that at last they found it impossible to conduct the government, and agreed to relinquish it for a season to nine plebeian families chosen from among the richest and most influential.  This gave rise to the Monte de’ Nove, who were supposed to hold the city in commission for the nobles, while the latter devoted themselves to the prosecution of their private animosities.  Weakened by feuds, the patricians fell a prey to their own creatures, the Monte de’ Nove, who in their turn ruled Siena like oligarchs, refusing to give up the power which had been intrusted to them.  In time, however, their insolence became insufferable.  The populace rebelled, deposed the Nove, and invested with supreme authority twelve other families of mixed origin.  The Monte de’ Dodici, created after this fashion, ran nearly the same course as their predecessors, except that they appear to have administered the city equitably.  Getting tired of this form of government, the people next superseded