of high levels, cantonal boundaries may overstep geographical barriers.  A commune generally consists of the villages strung along a narrow lateral valley, isolated and sufficient unto itself politically.  A close parallel to the Alpine commune is found among the Kabyles of the Atlas Mountains.  Their political structure is based upon the Jemaa or commune, a small sovereign republic whose independence is fiercely defended.  It enjoys complete local autonomy, is governed by an assembly of all the adult male inhabitants, and grants this body the usual functions except the administration of justice, which, characteristically, is replaced by blood feuds as the inalienable right of the individual.  Romans, Arabs, Turks and French have in turn exercised over these mountain Berbers only nominal control, except when their internal dissensions made them vulnerable.[1386]

[Sidenote:  Significance of their small size.]

The mountains, by the segregating power of their ridges and ranges, first produce these little independent communities, and then, throwing around them strong protecting arms, enfold them in an embrace which long provides security to them in their weakness.  These minute mountain states, therefore, tend to reflect in their size the isolation of their environment, and indirectly the weakness of the surrounding nations.  The original Swiss Eidgenossensschaft of the four forest cantons, embedded in the high Alps, braced against a mountain wall, held its own against the feeble feudal states of Austria and Germany.  The rugged relief of Graubuenden and the spirit of freedom cradled there enabled its peasants in the Middle Ages to overthrow the feudal lords, and to establish a federal republic.  This typical mountain state was a league composed of three other leagues.  Each component league consisted of a group of districts, having the power of sovereign states, and consisting in turn of a group of communes, which were quite independent in local affairs.  This triune league formed in time an alliance with the Swiss Confederation, but did not become a member of it till the Vienna adjustment of 1815.  Similar is the story of the mountain shepherds of Appenzell, who formed a little peasant republic, despite their bishop overlord of St. Gall; and who later during the Reformation, on the ground of religious differences, divided into two yet smaller states.[1387] The relation between size and inaccessibility is most strikingly illustrated in the high Himalayan ranges west of Kashmir and north of the Punjab.  Here is the Shinaka district, which includes the Chilas, Darel, Tanger and other valleys branching off from the Indus, and which is inhabited by Dards of Indo-European stock.  Each Shinaka valley is a small cantonal republic, and each village of each republic is a commune managing its own affairs by an assembly.  One settlement of only twelve houses enjoys complete autonomy.  Besides the village assemblies there is a state parliament handling questions of general policy, to which each village sends representatives.  One dissentient vote can defeat a measure.  The majority cannot control the minority; for if one village of a state disagrees with the others, it is free to carry out its own policy, even in the matter of foreign alliances.[1388] Here is home rule run to seed.