[789] For race elements in Mesopotamia, see D.G.  Hogarth, The Nearer East, Maps, pp. 173 and 176.  London, 1903.

[790] E.A.  Freeman, Historical Geography of Europe, pp. 201-202, 506-508, 535-536, 541.  London, 1882.

[791] Imperial Gazetteer of India, Vol.  I, pp. 293-297.  Oxford, 1907.

[792] Sir Thomas Holdich, India, Ethnographical map, p. 201, pp. 202, 213-216.  London, 1905.  B.H.  Baden-Powell, The Indian Village Community, pp. 111, 116, 119, 161.  London, 1896.

[793] W.Z.  Ripley, Races of Europe, pp. 312-321.  New York, 1899.  E. Reclus, Europe, Vol.  IV, pp. 73, 83-84.  New York, 1882.

[794] H.J.  Mackinder, Britain and the British Seas, Ethnographic map, p. 184, and p. 306.  London, 1904.

[795] W.Z.  Ripley, Races of Europe, pp. 22, 23, 150-151.  New York, 1899.

[796] Ibid., pp. 248, 258, 272.

[797] Ibid., pp. 247, 273.

[798] Ibid., pp. 403-409, and map.

[799] F. Brinkley, Japan, Vol.  I, pp. 38-42, 70, 75-80, 83-84, 126.  Boston and Tokyo, 1901.  W.E.  Griffis, The Mikado’s Empire, Vol.  I, pp. 73, 83.  New York, 1903.

[800] Henry Dyer, Dai Nippon, pp. 59, 69.  New York, 1904.

[801] E.A.  Freeman, Historical Geography of Europe, p. 558.  London, 1882.

[802] Ibid., pp. 559, 561.  Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol.  V, p. 248.  New York, 1858.

CHAPTER XIII

ISLAND PEOPLES

[Sidenote:  Physical relationship between islands and peninsulas.]

The characteristics which mark peninsulas, namely, ample contact with the sea, small area as compared with that of the continents, peripheral location, more or less complete isolation, combined, however, with the function of bridge or passway to yet remoter lands, are all accentuated in islands.  A list of the chief peninsulas of the world, as compared with the greatest islands, shows a far larger scale of areas for the former, even if the latter be made to include the vast ice-capped land-mass of Greenland (2,170,000 square kilometers or 846,000 square miles).  New Guinea, the largest habitable island, has only one-fourth the area of Arabia, the largest of the peninsulas.[803] Therefore, both the advantages and disadvantages incident to a restricted area may be expected to appear in an intensified degree in islands.

Peninsulas are morphologically transition forms between mainland and islands; by slight geological changes one is converted into the other.  Great Britain was a peninsula at the end of the Tertiary period, before subsidence and the erosion of Dover Channel combined to sever it from the continent.  It bears to-day in its flora and fauna the evidence of its former broad connection with the mainland.[804] In Pliocene times, Sicily and Sardinia were united by a land bridge with the Tunisian projection of North