Sieges, cannonades and battles innumerable ensued, over hundreds of leagues of territory, bordering the shores of the Baltic.  For several years the maddened strife continued, producing its usual fruits of gory fields, smouldering cities, desolated homes, with orphanage, widowhood, starvation, pestilence, and every conceivable form of human misery.  At length, all parties being exhausted, peace was concluded on the 2d of June, 1661.

The great insurrection in Moscow had taught the tzar Alexis a good lesson, and he profited by it wisely.  He was led to devote himself earnestly to the welfare of his people.  His recovery of the lost provinces of Russia was considered just, and added immeasurably to his renown.  Conscious of the imperfection of his education, he engaged earnestly in study, causing many important scientific treatises to be translated into the Russian language, and perusing them with diligence and delight.  He had the laws of the several provinces collected and published together.  Many new manufactures were introduced, particularly those of silk and linen.  Though rigidly economical in his expenses, he maintained a magnificent court and a numerous army.  He took great interest in the promotion of agriculture, bringing many desert wastes into cultivation, and peopling them with the prisoners taken in the Polish and Swedish wars.  It was the custom in those barbaric times to drive, as captives of war, the men, women and children of whole provinces, to be slaves in the territory of the conqueror.  Often they occupied the position of a vassal peasantry, tilling the soil for the benefit of their lords.  With singular foresight, Alexis planned for the construction of a fleet both on the Caspian and the Black Sea.  With this object in view, he sent for ship carpenters from Holland and other places.

All Europe was now trembling in view of the encroachments of the Turks.  Several very angry messages had passed between the sultan and the tzar, and the Turks had proved themselves ever eager to combine with the Tartars in bloody raids into the southern regions of the empire.  Alexis resolved to combine Christian Europe, if possible, in a war of extermination against the Turks.  To this end he sent embassadors to every court in Christendom.  As his embassador was presented to Pope Clement X., the pope extended his foot for the customary kiss.  The proud Russian drew back, exclaiming,

“So ignoble an act of homage is beneath the dignity of the prince whom I have the honor to serve.”

He then informed the pope that the Emperor of Russia had resolved to make war against the Turks, that he wished to see all Christian princes unite against those enemies of humanity and religion, that for that purpose he had sent embassadors to all the potentates of Europe, and that he exhorted his holiness to place himself at the head of a league so powerful, so necessary for the protection of the church, and from which every