[1] See above, p. 23, note 3.

    [2] Cp.  “New Christians.”

    [3] Pronounced Mulads, hence Mulatto.  The word means “adopted.”

    [4] Al Makkari, ii. 446.  De Gayangos’ note.

    [5] Al Makkari, ii. 458.

[6] Cp.  “Gordon in Central Africa,” p. 300. “... the only regret is that I am a Christian.  Yet they would be the first to despise me if I recanted and became a Mussulman.”  An Arab poet calls them “sons of slaves,” Dozy, ii. 258.

    [7] So Dozy, ii. p. 52.  But perhaps he meant “of the Arab
    population.”

    [8] Dozy, ii. 261.

    [9] Al Makkari, ii. p. 458.  De Gayangos’ note.

As early as 805 the Muwallads of Cordova, incited by certain theologians, revolted under Hakem I., but the rising was suppressed.  In 814, however, they again rose, and the rebellion being put down with great severity by the help of the Berbers, the Cordovan Muwallads were exiled, 1500 going to Alexandria, and 8000 to Fez.[1] But though exterminated in Cordova, the renegades still mustered strong in Spain.  At Elvira they rose in Abdallah’s reign, under a chief named Nabil, and threw off the Arab yoke;[2] and, previously to this, Abdurrahman ibn Merwan ibn Yunas and Sadoun had headed similar revolts at Badajos and Merida.[3] At Seville the Muwallad element was specially strong, as we see from the many family names, such as Beni Angelino, Beni Sabarico, which betray a Spanish origin.  The majority of the inhabitants embraced Islam early, and had their mosque by the middle of the ninth century, but they retained many Spanish customs and characteristics.  When the Arabs of Seville revolted against the Sultan, the renegade party joined the latter.  At Saragoza, the Beni Kasi, descendants of a noble Gothic family, set up an independent kindgom, waging war indifferently with all their neighbours.

    [1] Dozy, App.  B to vol. ii.  Hakem was called Al rabadhi (=he
    of the suburb) from this.

    [2] Ihn Hayyan, apud Al Makkari, ii. 446, ff.

    [3] In 875.  “Chron Albel.,” sec. 62.  Dozy, ii. 184.

It does not come within the scope of this inquiry to trace out the history of all the revolts made by the Arabs or Berbers against the Sultan’s authority, but the policy and position of the Muwallads and Christians are a necessary part of our subject.  The latter, though well treated on the whole, naturally looked back with regret to the days of their own supremacy, and were ready to intrigue with anyone able to assist them against their Arab rulers.  Accordingly we find them communicating with the kings of France; and there is still extant a letter from Louis the Debonnaire to the people of Merida, written in 826, which is as follows:—­“We have heard of your tribulation, which you suffer from the cruelty of your king Abdurrahman, who has tried to take away your goods, and has oppressed you just as his father