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This imperfect and sketchy picture of religious life in India so far as it can be gathered from the older Brahmanic books has reference mainly to the kingdoms of the Kuru-Pancalas and Videha in 800-600 B.C.  Another picture, somewhat fuller, is found in the ancient literature of the Buddhists and Jains, which depicts the kingdoms of Magadha (Bihar) and Kosala (Oudh) in the time of the Buddha and Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, that is, about 500 B.C. or rather earlier.  It is probable that the picture is substantially true for this period or even for a period considerably earlier, for Mahavira was supposed to have revived with modifications the doctrines of Parsvanatha and some of the Buddhas mentioned as preceding Gotama were probably historical personages.  But the Brahmanic and Buddhist accounts do not give two successive phases of thought in the same people, for the locality is not quite the same.  Both pictures include the territory of Kasi and Videha, but the Brahmanic landscape lies mainly to the west and the Buddhist mainly to the east of this region.  In the Buddhist sphere it is clear that in the youth of Gotama Brahmanic doctrines and ritual were well known but not predominant.  It is hardly demonstrable from literature, but still probable, that the ideas and usages which found expression in Jainism and Buddhism existed in the western districts, though less powerful there than in the east[224].

A striking feature of the world in which Jainism and Buddhism arose was the prevalence of confraternities or religious orders.  They were the recognized form of expression not only for piety but for the germs of theology, metaphysics and science.  The ordinary man of the world kept on good terms with such gods as came his way, but those who craved for some higher interest often separated themselves from the body of citizens and followed some special rule of life.  In one sense the Brahmans were the greatest of such communities, but they were a hereditary corporation and though they were not averse to new ideas, their special stock in trade was an acquaintance with traditional formulae and rites.  They were also, in the main, sedentary and householders.  Somewhat opposed to them were other companies, described collectively as Paribbajakas or Samanas[225].  These, though offering many differences among themselves, were clearly distinguished from the Brahmans, and it is probable that they usually belonged to the warrior caste.  But they did not maintain that religious knowledge was the exclusive privilege of any caste:  they were not householders but wanderers and celibates.  Often they were ascetics and addicted to extreme forms of self-mortification.  They did not study the Vedas or perform sacrifices, and their speculations were often revolutionary, and as a rule not theistic.  It is not easy to find any English word which describes these people or the Buddhist Bhikkhus.  Monk is perhaps the best, though inadequate.  Pilgrim and friar give the idea of wandering, but otherwise suggest wrong associations.  But in calling them monks, we must remember that though celibates, and to some extent recluses (for they mixed with the world only in a limited degree), they were not confined in cloisters.  The more stationary lived in woods, either in huts or the open air, but many spent the greater part of the year in wandering.