religion, since they need instruction themselves.  And though he denied that the Brahmans were superior by birth to others, he did not preach against caste, partly because it then existed only in a rudimentary form.  But he taught that the road to salvation was one and open to all who were able to walk in it[10], whether Hindus or foreigners.  All may not have the necessary qualifications of intellect and character to become monks but all can be good laymen, for whom the religious life means the observance of morality combined with such simple exercises as reading the scriptures.  It is clear that this lay Buddhism had much to do with the spread of the faith.  The elemental simplicity of its principles—­namely that religion is open to all and identical with morality—­made a clean sweep of Brahmanic theology and sacrifices and put in its place something like Confucianism.  But the innate Indian love for philosophizing and ritual caused generation after generation to add more and more supplements to the Master’s teaching and it is only outside India that it has been preserved in any purity.

4. Asoka

Gotama spent his life in preaching and by his personal exertions spread his doctrines over Bihar and Oudh but for two centuries after his death we know little of the history of Buddhism.  In the reign of Asoka (273-232 B.C.) its fortunes suddenly changed, for this great Emperor whose dominions comprised nearly all India made it the state religion and also engraved on rocks and pillars a long series of edicts recording his opinions and aspirations.  Buddhism is often criticized as a gloomy and unpractical creed, suited at best to stoical and scholarly recluses.  But these are certainly not its characteristics when it first appears in political history, just as they are not its characteristics in Burma or Japan to-day.  Both by precept and example Asoka was an ardent exponent of the strenuous life.  In his first edict he lays down the principle “Let small and great exert themselves” and in subsequent inscriptions he continually harps upon the necessity of energy and exertion.  The Law or Religion (Dhamma) which his edicts enjoin is merely human and civic virtue, except that it makes respect for animal life an integral part of morality.  In one passage he summarizes it as “Little impiety, many good deeds, compassion, liberality, truthfulness and purity.”  He makes no reference to a supreme deity, but insists on the reality and importance of the future life.  Though he does not use the word Karma this is clearly the conception which dominates his philosophy:  those who do good are happy in this world and the next but those who fail in their duty win neither heaven nor the royal favour.  The king’s creed is remarkable in India for its great simplicity.  He deprecates superstitious ceremonies and says nothing of Nirvana but dwells on morality as necessary to happiness in this life and others.  This is not the whole of Gotama’s teaching but two centuries after his death a powerful and enlightened Buddhist gives it as the gist of Buddhism for laymen.