his to spread the faith in the provinces.  The Church might perhaps have gained a complete victory, had not dissensions arisen within her own ranks.  Dominicans and Franciscans entering the field denounced their forerunners for having tolerated heathen rites and accepted heathen names for God.  After prolonged discussions and contradictory decrees the final verdict went against the Jesuits.  In this decision the Holy See seems not to have been guided by infallible wisdom.

Kanghi, whose opinion had been requested by the Jesuits, asserted that by Tien and Shang-ti the Chinese mean the Ruler of the Universe, and that the worship of Confucius and of ancestors is not idolatry, but a state or family ceremony.  By deciding against his views, the Pope committed the blunder of alienating a great monarch, who might have been won by a liberal policy.  The prohibition of the cult of ancestors—­less objectionable in itself than the worship of saints—­had the effect of arming every household against a faith that aimed to subvert their family altars.  The dethronement of Shang-ti (a name accepted by [Page 144] most Protestant missionaries) and the substitution of Tien Chu, could not fail to shock the best feelings of devout people. Tien Chu, if not a new coinage, was given by papal fiat an artificial value, equivalent to “Lord of all”—­whereas it had previously headed a list of divisional deities, such as Lord of Heaven, Lord of Earth, Lord of the Sea, etc.

What wonder that for two centuries Christianity continued to be a prohibited creed!  The ground thus lost by a papal blunder it has never regained.  The acceptance of Tien and Shang-ti by Protestants might perhaps do something to retrieve the situation, if backed by some form of respect for ancestors.

Kanghi was succeeded by his son Yungcheng (1722-1736), who was followed by Kienlung (1736-1796), during whose reign the dynasty reached the acme of splendour.  Under Kienlung, Turkestan was added to the empire.  The Grand Lama of Tibet was also enrolled as a feudatory; but he never accepted the laws of China, and no doubt considered himself repaid by spiritual homage.  No territory has since been added, and none lost, if we except the cession of Formosa to Japan and of Hong Kong to Great Britain.  The cessions of seaports to other powers are considered as temporary leases.

After a magnificent reign of sixty years, Kienlung abdicated in favour of his fifth son, Kiak’ing, for the whimsical reason that he did not wish to reign longer than his grandfather.  In Chinese eyes this was sublime.  Why did they not enact a law that no man should surpass the longevity of his father?

As to Kiak’ing, who occupied the throne for twenty-four [Page 145] years, weak and dissolute is a summary of his character.

The next four reigns came under the influence of new forces.  They belong to the era of transformation, and may properly be reserved for Part III.