In Ireland civic freedom was unknown.  There was no popular Assembly.  A wealthy aristocracy of English extraction and of Anglican faith, partly resident, partly absentee, and wholly subservient to the English Government, constituted the Upper House of that strange institution known as Parliament, and to a great extent nominated and controlled the Lower House through means frankly corrupt.  Representation was almost nominal; close pocket-boroughs predominated, and seats were bought and sold in the open market.  In the year 1790 more than a third of the Members of the House of Commons were placemen, 216 Members out of 300 were elected by boroughs and manors, and, of these, 176 were elected by individual patrons.  Fifty-three of these patrons, nominating 123 Members, sat as Peers in the Upper House.  Cash, places, and peerages, were the usual considerations paid for maintaining a Government majority.  The Catholics, from three-quarters to five-sixths of the population, had neither votes nor members; the Dissenters scarcely any members and an almost powerless vote.  The Irish Legislature, by an Act as old as 1495, the famous Poynings’ Law, could neither initiate nor pass a measure without the consent of the English Privy Council, and the Declaratory Act of 1719 confirmed the power of making English Acts applicable to Ireland.  Government in England itself was, no doubt, unrepresentative and corrupt at that period, and the people paid the penalty in full; but it was a national government, under the aegis of the national faith, and resting, however remotely, on the ultimate sanction of the people, just as American opinion, more democratically ascertained, continued to control the major part of American affairs.  In Ireland the Government was systematically anti-Irish.  There was no career for Irishmen in Ireland.  Both Catholics and Dissenters were excluded from all civil and military offices; the highest posts were generally given to Englishmen born and bred, and the country, Episcopalian only to a fractional extent, was ruled by a narrow Episcopalian oligarchy of wealthy landowners and prelates, who bartered Irish freedom for the place and power of their own families and dependents.  The conditions of this sordid exchange were the ground of the first important Anglo-Irish political struggle in the eighteenth century, when the English Viceroy, Townshend, succeeded in 1770-71, at the cost of half a million, in transferring the bribing power, and therefore the controlling power, from the “Undertakers,” as they were known, direct to the Crown.

There seems to have been no continuous English policy beyond that of making Ireland completely subservient to English interests and purposes, and often to purposes of the most humiliating and degrading kind.  The Irish Pension List has earned immortal infamy.  Jobs too scandalous to pass muster in England were systematically foisted upon the Irish establishment.  Royal mistresses, a host of needy Germans, a Danish