on both sides of this question is here reproduced with some modifications.  It illustrates not only the exercise itself, but also the ponderous complications which the scholastic method received at the hands of Abelard’s successors, and the weakness of that method when applied to questions of natural science.  The reader will note that the argument no longer proceeds by the simple citation of authorities pro and con; the reasonings of the debater are also introduced.  Moreover, the argument is more complex.  It involves first the statement of the affirmative position; second, the refutation of the affirmative by observation and by reasoning; third, objections to the refutation by reasoning; fourth, refutation of these objections; fifth, final refutation of the original arguments.

     Introduction:  Author’s reasons for undertaking the discussion.

Let it be known to you all that, whilst I was in Mantua, a certain Question arose, which, often argued according to appearance rather than to truth remained undetermined.  Wherefore, since from boyhood I have ever been nurtured in love of truth, I could not bear to leave the Question I have spoken of undiscussed:  rather I wished to demonstrate the truth concerning it, and likewise, hating untruth as well as loving truth, to refute contrary arguments.  And lest the spleen of many, who, when the objects of their envy are absent, are wont to fabricate lies, should behind my back transform well-spoken words, I further wished in these pages, traced by my own fingers, to set down the conclusion I had reached and to sketch out, with my pen, the form of the whole controversy.

     THE QUESTION:  IS WATER, OR THE SURFACE OF THE SEA, ANYWHERE
     HIGHER THAN THE EARTH, OR HABITABLE DRY LAND?

     AFFIRMATIVE ARGUMENT:  Five affirmative arguments generally
     accepted.

Reason 1. Geometrical Proof:  Earth and Water are spheres with different centers; the center of the Earth’s sphere is the center of the universe; consequently the surface of the Water is above that of the Earth.

     Reason 2. Ethical Proof:  Water is a nobler element than Earth;
     hence it deserves a nobler, or higher, place in the scheme of the
     universe.

     Reason 3. Experimental Proof:  based on sailors seeing the land
     disappear under their horizon when at sea.

Reason 4. Economical Proof:  The supply of Water, namely, the sea, must be higher than the Earth; otherwise, as Water flows downwards, it could not reach, as it does, the fountains, lakes, etc.

Reason 5. Astronomical Proof:  Since Water follows the moon’s course, its sphere must be excentric, like the moon’s excentric orbit; and consequently in places be higher than the sphere of Earth.

NEGATIVE ARGUMENT:  These reasons unfounded.