4.  The term “University” has always been difficult to define.  In the Middle Ages its meaning varied in different places, and changed somewhat in the centuries between 1200 and 1500 A.D.  In these pages it signifies in general an institution for higher education; and “institution” means, not a group of buildings, but a society of teachers or students organized, and ultimately incorporated, for mutual aid and protection, and for the purpose of imparting or securing higher education.  Originally, universities were merely guilds of Masters or Scholars; as such they were imitations of the numerous guilds of artisans and tradesmen already in existence.  Out of the simple organization and customs of these guilds grew the elaborate organization and ceremonials of later universities.

There were two main types of university organization,—­the University of Masters, and the University of Students.  In the former,—­which is the type of all modern universities,—­the government and instruction of students were regulated by the Masters or Doctors.  In the latter, these matters were controlled by the students, who also prescribed rules for the conduct of the Masters.  Paris and Bologna were, respectively, the original representatives of these types.  Paris was the original University of Masters; its pattern was copied, with some modifications, by the universities of England, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and Scotland.  Bologna was the archetypal University of Students; its organization was imitated, also with variations, by the universities Italy, France (except Paris), Spain, and Portugal.

In and after the thirteenth century, the place or school in which a university existed was almost always called a Studium Generale, i.e. a place to which students resorted, or were invited, from all countries.  This term was used in contrast to Studium Particulare, i.e. any school in which a Master in a town taught a few scholars.  In the Studium Generale instruction was given by several Masters, in one or more of the Faculties of Arts, Law, Medicine, and Theology.  In time the term came to be synonymous with “University”; it is so used in this book.

5.  The theoretically complete mediaeval university contained the four faculties of Arts, Theology, Law, and Medicine.  These we find reproduced in some modern universities.  Then, as now, however, it was not common to find them all equally well developed in any single institution; many possessed only two or three faculties, and some had but one.  There are rare instances of five faculties, owing to the subdivision of Law.  At Paris, the strongest faculties were those of Arts and Theology; Law and Medicine were in comparison but feebly represented.  At Bologna, on the other hand, the study of Law was predominant, although the Arts, Medicine, and Theology were also taught there.

6.  The studies pursued in the various faculties in and after the thirteenth century were in general as follows: