century Albertus Magnus made a digest of all the works of Aristotle, which proved to be easier for students than the originals, and which were sometimes used in place of them.  Among mathematical works of this century were the Algorismus (Arithmetic) and the Libellus de Sphaera (On the Sphere) by John Holywood (Sacrobosco); and the Perspectiva Communis, i.e.  Optics, by John (Peckham) of Pisa.  A treatise on Music by John de Muris of Paris was produced in the early part of the fourteenth century.  All of these were well-known university text-books.  They appear in the list at Leipzig throughout the fifteenth century (see p. 139).

4.  UNIVERSITY PRIVILEGES

The privileges granted by civil and ecclesiastical powers constitute a fourth important influence upon the growth of universities.  Beginning with the year 1158 a long series of immunities, liberties, and exemptions was bestowed by State and Church upon masters and students as a class, and upon universities as corporations.  Masters and scholars were, for example, often taken under the special protection of the sovereign of the country in which they were studying; they were exempted from taxation, and from military service; most important of all, they were placed under the jurisdiction of special courts, in which alone they could be tried.  Universities as corporations were given, among other privileges, the right to confer upon their graduates the license to teach “anywhere in the world” without further examination, and the very important right to suspend lectures, i.e. to strike, pending the settlement of grievances against State or Church.  They had, of course, the general legal powers of corporations.  Thus fortified, the universities attained an astonishing degree of independence and power; and their members were enabled to live in unusual liberty and security.  This fact in itself unquestionably tended to increase the university population.

The masters and scholars of Bologna, Paris, and Oxford seem to have led the way in securing privileges.  Their precedent made it easier for later universities to secure similar rights.  These were sometimes established “with all the privileges of Paris and Bologna,” or “all the privileges of any other university.”

The authorities who granted privileges were the sovereigns of Various countries,—­the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, the kings of France, England, the Spains—­feudal lords, municipalities, and the Pope or his legates.  They usually conferred them upon special universities, or upon the masters and students in specified towns, and sometimes only for a definite term of years.  Minor privileges differed greatly in different localities, but the more important ones—­indicated above—­were possessed by nearly all universities.

The documents which follow illustrate both the variety of privileges and the variety of authorities who granted them.

(a) Special Protection is granted by the Sovereign