[Footnote 78:  Busch, Our Chancellor, vol i. p. 139, where he quotes a conversation of Bismarck of Nov. 1883.  On the Roman Catholic policy in Posen, see ibid. pp. 143-145.]

When these high-handed proceedings were extended even to the schools, the Prussian Government intervened, and early in 1872 passed a law ordaining that all school inspectors should be appointed by the King’s Government at Berlin.  This greatly irritated the Roman Catholic hierarchy and led up to aggressive acts on both sides, the German Reichstag taking up the matter and decreeing the exclusion of the Jesuits from all priestly and scholastic duties of whatever kind within the Empire (July 1872).  The strife waxed ever fiercer.  When the Roman Catholic bishops of Germany persisted in depriving “Old Catholics” of professorial and other charges, the central Government retorted by the famous “May Laws” of 1873.  The first of these forbade the Roman Catholic Church to intervene in civil affairs in any way, or to coerce officials and citizens of the Empire.  The second required of all ministers of religion that they should have passed the final examination at a High School, and also should have studied theology for three years at a German University:  it further subjected all seminaries to State inspection.  The third accorded fuller legal protection to dissidents from the various creeds.

This anti-clerical policy is known as the “Kultur-Kampf”, a term that denotes a struggle for civilisation against the forces of reaction.  For some years the strife was of the sharpest kind.  The Roman Catholic bishops continued to ban the “Old Catholics”, while the State refused to recognise any act of marriage or christening performed by clerics who disobeyed the new laws.  The logical sequel to this was obvious, namely, that the State should insist on the religious ceremony of marriage being supplemented by a civil contract[79].  Acts to render this compulsory were first passed by the Prussian Landtag late in 1873 and by the German Reichstag in 1875.

[Footnote 79:  Lowe, Life of Bismarck, vol. ii. p. 336, note.]

It would be alike needless and tedious to detail the further stages of this bitter controversy, especially as several of the later “May Laws” have been repealed.  We may, however, note its significance in the development of parties.  Many of the Prussian nobles and squires (Junkers the latter were called) joined issue with Bismarck on the Civil Marriage Act, and this schism weakened Bismarck’s long alliance with the Conservative party.  He enjoyed, however, the enthusiastic support of the powerful National Liberal party, as well as the Imperialist and Progressive groups.  Differing on many points of detail, these parties aimed at strengthening the fabric of the central power, and it was with their aid in the Reichstag that the new institutions of Germany were planted and took root.  The General Election of 1874 sent