Other sides of this narrowly nationalising policy were seen in the determined repression of Polish feelings, of the Germans in the Baltic provinces, and of the Armenians of Transcaucasia.  Finally, remorseless pressure was brought to bear on that interesting people, the Finns.  We can here refer only to the last of these topics.  The Germans in the Provinces of Livonia, Courland, and Esthonia formed the majority only among the land-holding and merchant classes; and the curbing of their semi-feudal privileges wore the look of a democratic reform.

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The case was far different with the Finns.  They are a non-Aryan people, and therefore differ widely from the Swedes and Russians.  For centuries they formed part of the Swedish monarchy, deriving thence in large measure their literature, civilisation, and institutions.  To this day the Swedish tongue is used by about one-half of their gentry and burghers.  On the annexation of Finland by Alexander I., in consequence of the Franco-Russian compact framed at Tilsit in 1807, he made to their Estates a solemn promise to respect their constitution and laws.  Similar engagements have been made by his successors.  Despite some attempts by Nicholas I. to shelve the constitution of the Grand Duchy, local liberties remained almost intact up to a comparatively recent time.  In the year 1869 the Finns gained further guarantees of their rights.  Alexander II. then ratified the laws of Finland, and caused a statement of the relations between Finland and Russia to be drawn up.

In view of the recent struggle between the Czar and the Finnish people, it may be well to give a sketch of their constitution.  The sovereign governs, not as Emperor of Russia, but as Grand Duke of Finland.  He delegates his administrative powers to a Senate, which is presided over by a Governor-General.  This important official, as a matter of fact, has always been a Russian; his powers are, or rather were[235], shared by two sections of the Finnish Senate, each composed of ten members nominated by the Grand Duke.  The Senate prepares laws and ordinances which the Grand Duke then submits to the Diet.  This body consists of four Orders—­nobles, clergy, burghers, and peasants.  Since 1886 it has enjoyed to a limited extent the right of initiating laws.  The Orders sit and vote separately.  In most cases a resolution that is passed by three of them becomes law, when it has received the assent of the Grand Duke.  But the assent of a majority in each of the four Orders is needed in the case of a proposal that affects the constitution of the Grand Duchy and the privileges of the Orders.  In case a Bill is accepted by two Orders and is rejected by the other two, a deadlock is averted by each of the Orders appointing fifteen delegates; these sixty delegates, meeting without discussion, vote by ballot, and a bare majority carries the day.  Measures are then referred to the Grand Duke, who, after consulting the Senate, gives or witholds his assent[236].