object of most of the charms and incantations—­but some of the desirable things are disease and death of one’s foes.  On the higher side of religion, from a metaphysical point of view, the Atharvan is pantheistic.  It knows also the importance of the ’breaths,’[1] the vital forces; it puts side by side the different gods and says that each ‘is lord.’  It does not lack philosophical speculation which, although most of it is puerile, sometimes raises questions of wider scope, as when the sage inquires who made the body with its wonderful parts—­implying, but not stating the argument, from design, in its oldest form.[2]

Of magical verses there are many, but the content is seldom more than “do thou, O plant, preserve from harm,” etc.  Harmless enough, if somewhat weak, are also many other hymns calculated to procure blessings: 

  Blessings blow to us the wind,
  Blessings glow to us the sun,
  Blessings be to us the day,
  Blest to us the night appear,
  Blest to us the dawn shall shine,

is a fair specimen of this innocuous sort of verse.[3] Another example may be seen in this hymn to a king:  “Firm is the sky; firm is the earth; firm, all creation; firm, these hills; firm the king of the people (shall be),” etc.[4] In another hymn there is an incantation to release from possible ill coming from a foe and from inherited ill or sin.[5] A free spirit of doubt and atheism, already foreshadowed in the Rig Veda, is implied in the prayer that the god will be merciful to the cattle of that man “whose creed is ‘Gods exist.’"[6] Serpent-worship is not only known, but prevalent.[7] The old gods still hold, as always, their nominal places, albeit the system is pantheistic, so that Varuna is god of waters; and Mitra with Varuna, gods of rain.[8] As a starting-point of philosophy the dictum of the Rig Veda is repeated:  ‘Desire is the seed of mind,’ and ’love, i.e., desire, was born first.’  Here Aditi is defined anew as the one in whose lap is the wide atmosphere—­ she is parent and child, gods and men, all in all—­’may she extend to us a triple shelter.’  As an example of curse against curse may be compared II. 7: 

The sin-hated, god-born plant, that frees from the curse as waters (wash out) the spot, has washed away all curses, the curse of my rival and of my sister; (that) which the Brahman in anger cursed, all this lies under my feet ...  With this plant protect this (wife), protect my child, protect our property ...  May the curse return to the curser ...  We smite even the ribs of the foe with the evil (mantra) eye.

A love-charm in the same book (II. 30) will remind the classical student of Theocritus’ second idyl:  ’As the wind twirls around grass upon the ground, so I twirl thy mind about, that thou mayst become loving, that thou mayst not depart from me,’ etc.  In the following verses the Horsemen gods are invoked to unite the lovers.  Characteristic among bucolic passages is the cow-song in II. 26, the whole intent of which is to ensure a safe return to the cows on their wanderings:  ’Hither may they come, the cattle that have wandered far away,’ etc.