[Footnote 36:  For more complete information respecting the writers of this period, see Bentkowaki’s Hist. lit.  Pol Vol.  I. Schaffarik’s Gechichte, etc.]

[Footnote 37:  We mean the direct male descendants of Jagello; for descendants by the female and collateral lines occupied the throne after Stephen Bathory.  Poland had never been by law an hereditary kingdom; but in most cases one of the sons or brothers of the last king was elected.]

[Footnote 38:  These pacta conventa, to which numerous articles were afterwards added, not only limiled the king in his quality as king, but even also as a private man, in a degree to which no freeman would willingly submit.  For example, he was not allowed to marry except with the consent of the diet; and as each single nuntius had the right to oppose and render void the resolutions of the united estates by his liberum veto, the king could not marry whenever it occurred to any one of them to withhold his consent.  In 1669 it was resolved, that no king should be allowed to abdicate.]

[Footnote 39:  Korona Polska, Lemberg 1728-1743.]

[Footnote 40:  In 1764; it was the first periodical ever published in Poland.]

[Footnote 41:  See page 227 above.]

[Footnote 42:  The Polish serfs were indeed never regular slaves; but merely glebae adscripti, i.e. they could not be sold separately as mere things, but only with the soil they cultivated, which they had no right to leave.  They were not reduced even to this state before the fifteenth or sixteenth century; for one of the statutes of Casimir the Great allows them the privilege of selling their property and leaving whenever they were ill treated.  Of the present state of the Polish peasantry, the author of “Poland under the dominion of Russia,” (Bost. 1834,) says:  “The Polish peasant might perhaps be about as free as my dog was in Warsaw; for I certainly should not have prevented the animal from learning, had he been so inclined, some tricks by which he could earn the reward of an extra bone.  The freedom of the wretched Polish serfs is much the same as the freedom of their cattle; for they are brought up with as little of human cultivation,” etc. p. 165.  And again:  “The Polish serf is in every part of the country extremely poor, and of all the living creatures I have met with in this world, or seen described in books of natural history, he is the most wretched.” p. 176.]

[Footnote 43:  Lemberg indeed can hardly be called a Polish university.  All its professors are Germans, and the lectures are delivered in Latin or German.  It has only three faculties, viz. the philosophical, theological, and juridical.  For medicine it has only a preparatory school, the course being finished at Vienna.  Among the 65 medical students of 1832, there were 41 Jews.  The university had in that year, in all, 1291 students.  For the theological