beyond his control.  He never was a pioneer in the sense that the early inhabitants of the Middle West and South had been pioneers; and he has never exercised any corresponding influence upon the American national temper.  The pioneer had enjoyed his day, and his day was over.  The Jack-of-all-trades no longer possessed an important economic function.  The average farmer was, of course, still obliged to be many kinds of a rough mechanic, but for the most part he was nothing more than a farmer.  Unskilled labor began to mean labor which was insignificant and badly paid.  Industrial economy demanded the expert with his high and special standards of achievement.  The railroads and factories could not be financed and operated without the assistance of well-paid and well-trained men, who could do one or two things remarkably well, and who did not pretend to do much of anything else.  These men had to retain great flexibility and an easy adaptability of intelligence, because American industry and commerce remained very quick in its movements.  The machinery which they handled was less permanent, and was intended to be less permanent than the machinery which was considered economical in Europe.  But although they had to avoid routine and business rigidity on the penalty of utter failure, still they belonged essentially to a class of experts.  Like all experts, they had to depend, not upon mere energy, untutored enthusiasm, and good-will, but upon careful training and single-minded devotion to a special task, and at the same time proper provision had to be made for cooerdinating the results of this highly specialized work.  More complete organization necessarily accompanied specialization.  The expert became a part of a great industrial machine.  His individuality tended to disappear in his work.  His interests became those of a group.  Imperative economic necessities began to classify the individuals composing American society in the same way, if not to the same extent, that they had been classified in Europe.

This was a result which had never entered into the calculations of the pioneer Democrat.  He had disliked specialization, because, as he thought, it narrowed and impoverished the individual; and he distrusted permanent and official forms of organization, because, as he thought, they hampered the individual.  His whole political, social, and economic outlook embodied a society of energetic, optimistic, and prosperous democrats, united by much the same interests, occupations, and point of view.  Each of these democrats was to be essentially an all-round man.  His conception of all-round manhood was somewhat limited; but it meant at least a person who was expansive in feeling, who was enough of a business man successfully to pursue his own interests, and enough of a politician to prevent any infringement or perversion of his rights.  He never doubted that the desired combination of business man, politician, and good fellow constituted an excellent