The coal-beds, as before mentioned, occur interstratified with shales, sandstones, and sometimes limestones; and there may, within the limits of a single coal-field, be as many as 80 or 100 of such beds, placed one above the other at different levels, and varying in thickness from a few inches up to 20 or 30 feet.  As a general rule, each bed of coal rests upon a bed of shale or clay, which is termed the “under-clay,” and in which are found numerous roots of plants; whilst the strata immediately on the top of the coal may be shaly or sandy, but in either case are generally charged with the leaves and stems of plants, and often have upright trunks passing vertically through them.  When we add to this that the coal itself is, chemically, nearly wholly composed of carbon, and that its microscopic structure shows it to be composed almost entirely of fragments of stems, leaves, bark, seeds, and vegetable debris derived from land-plants, we are readily enabled to understand how the coal was formed.  The “under-clay” immediately beneath the coal-bed represents an old land-surface—­sometimes, perhaps, the bottom of a swamp or marsh, covered with a luxuriant vegetation; the coal bed itself represents the slow accumulation, through long periods, of the leaves, seeds, fruits, stems, and fallen trunks of this vegetation, now hardened and compressed into a fraction of its original bulk by the pressure of the superincumbent rocks; and the strata of sand or shale above the coal-bed—­the so-called “roof” of the coal—­represent sediments quietly deposited as the land, after a long period of repose, commenced to sink beneath the sea.  On this view, the rank and long-continued vegetation which gave rise to each coal-bed was ultimately terminated by a slow depression of the surface on which the plants grew.  The land-surface then became covered by the water, and aqueous sediments were accumulated to a greater or less thickness upon the dense mass of decaying vegetation below, enveloping any trunks of trees which might still be in an erect position, and preserving between their layers the leaves and branches of plants brought down from the neighbouring land by streams, or blown into the wafer by the wind.  Finally, there set in a slow movement of elevation,—­the old land again reappeared above the water; a new and equally luxuriant vegetation flourished upon the new land-surface; and another coal-bed was accumulated, to be preserved ultimately in a similar fashion.  Some few beds of coal may have been formed by drifted vegetable matter brought down into the ocean by rivers, and deposited directly on the bottom of the sea; but in the majority of cases the coal is undeniably the result of the slow growth and decay of plants in situ:  and as the plants of the coal are not marine plants, it is necessary to adopt some such theory as the above to account for the formation of coal-seams.  By this theory, as is obvious, we are compelled to suppose that the vast alluvial