by a fine, and in extreme cases by exclusion from the Hansa—­a sentence necessarily involving the commercial isolation and eventual bankruptcy of the delinquent city.  Bremen, it is true, once withstood the consequences of the Hanseatic ban for more than fifty years, but this was before the extraordinary extension of Hanseatic power consequent upon the Danish war.  From all this it appears that the constitution of the Hansa was a very slack but elastic one, which easily adapted itself to the exigencies of the moment.  A charter of a Hanseatic constitution has never existed—­proof in itself of the desire to afford as much latitude as possible in the construction of the laws.  Theory is regarded as valueless; immediate facts and interests are all in all.  The supremacy of Lubeck, for example, was never formally recognized by the other cities of the league.

Thus did the Hansa flourish until the close of the Middle Ages.  With the discovery of America and of the passage to India trade was diverted into new channels; it became transoceanic and, not without some culpability on the part of the Hanses themselves, fell into the hands of the now more favorably situated countries of Western Europe—­Spain, Portugal, France, the Netherlands, and, finally, England.  Equally detrimental to the Hansa was the political transformation wrought at this time, especially as regards the rapidly growing power of the princes, who, with all the influence at their command, sought to abrogate all special privileges and to foster a levelling process in order that they alone might be exalted.  One city after another sank into utter dependence upon the sovereign rulers of the respective provinces, who, in their turn, began to take an interest in economic affairs, thus contributing to widen the breach between these respective cities and the league.  It was under these circumstances that Gustavus Vasa declared of the Hansa that “Its teeth were falling out, like those of an old woman.”  The Hollanders, especially, had long been converted from allies into formidable rivals.  The most important and decisive factor of this decadence, however, was the victorious opposition to the Hanseatic monopoly now brought to bear by the hitherto commercially oppressed nations, England and Russia, who simply closed the doors of the bureaus and abrogated the privileges of the German merchants of the league.  The condition of the Hansa was akin to that of a healthy, vigorous tree, set in poor soil and deriving its sustenance from the weakness of the home rulers and the primitive or defective economic conditions of foreign countries.  As soon as these negative mediaeval conditions were swept away by the storms of the Reformation the tree gradually but surely fell into decay.  With this later stage there is associated the historic tragedy of Juergen Wullenwever, that genial and daring democratic innovator, who, in an endeavor to conquer Denmark in order to restore the prestige of the Hansa, was betrayed by his patrician fellow-burghers and hanged.