every city eventually enjoying the privilege of a private mint—­so also was the deplorable disunion existing among the German people mirrored in the innumerable road and water taxes.  Above Hamburg, along a road about twelve German miles in extent, there were not fewer than nine customs stations.  Fortunately the tariff was not complicated, but was levied on the freight of the ship or wagon, or estimated by the bale or box irrespective of value or the quality of the goods under inspection.  Upon the presented crucifix the merchant, aided occasionally by his cojurors, solemnly swore to the correctness of his representations concerning the goods carried by him, the oath, as is well known, being very frequently brought into requisition in all judicial and commercial transactions during mediaeval times.

The Hansa ships were usually round-bellied, high-boarded craft with one mast, and flew the pennant of their home port.  They were comparatively broad and built of heavy planks, and could easily be transformed into war vessels by furnishing them with a superstructure known as the castell ("castle”) in which catapults and archers could be placed.  In size they were probably as large as the trading vessels which cross the Baltic to-day.  That they were skilfully handled is evident from the fact that a contemporaneous report mentions a trip from Ripen in Jutland to Amsterdam as having been successfully made in two days.  As regards the laws of navigation, a point especially noteworthy was the talent displayed in organizing fellowship unions.  Reference is not here made to the habit of the merchants in sailing in squadrons so much as to the peculiar institutions which regulated the life on board—­institutions which have recently been justly designated as the most perfect expression of that executive ability which characterized the close of German mediaevalism.  An account of these institutions dating from the middle of the sixteenth century has fortunately been preserved.

As soon as the vessel was upon the high sea the crew, which consisted of the captain and the “ship’s children,” pledged itself strictly to obey orders and equitably to divide any booty eventually secured.  A court of sheriffs was then organized, consisting of a judge, four sheriffs, a sergeant-at-arms, a secretary, an executioner, and several other officials.  Thereupon came the proclamation of the maritime law upon which the eventual judgment of the court was based.  The tenor of this law was as follows:  It is forbidden to swear in God’s name; to mention the devil; to sleep after the hour for prayer; to handle lights; to destroy or waste food; to meddle with the duties of the drawer of liquor; to play at dice or cards after sunset; and to vex the cook or annoy the crew under penalty of a monetary fine.  The following are some of the penalties inflicted for various offences:  Whoever sleeps while on guard or creates a disturbance between decks shall be drawn under the keel of the