By the end of 1847 Abdul Kader had retired to a stronghold in the mountains, where, seeing that his cause was lost, he tendered his submission to the Duc d’Aumale, then governor of Algeria.  The offer was accepted.  Abdul Kader surrendered on an understanding that he should be conducted to some Mohammedan place of refuge,—­Alexandria or St. Jean d’Acre.  But this stipulation was disregarded by the French Government, whose breach of faith has always been considered a stain on the honor of Louis Philippe and his ministers.  The Duc d’Aumale vehemently remonstrated, believing his own word pledged to the Arab chieftain.  Abdul Kader, his wives, children, servants, and principal officers were taken to France, and for five years lived at Amboise, where some of the subordinate attendants, overcome by homesickness, committed suicide.  In 1852 Louis Napoleon, who possibly had a fellow-feeling for captives, restored Abdul Kader to liberty, who thereupon took up his residence at Damascus.  There he subsequently protected a large number of Christians from massacre, sheltering them in his house, and giving them food and clothing.  He afterwards removed to the island of Ceylon, where, as everywhere else, he won “golden opinions” by his generous behavior.

Meantime, while France was in some respects in the full tide of prosperity, great discontent was growing up among the working-classes, reinforced by the worthless class, always ready for disturbances.  In May, 1839, Barbes led an emeute in Paris which might have proved formidable.  His attempt opened with a deliberate murder, and there was considerable fighting in the streets for about twenty-four hours.  Barbes was condemned to death.  The king was desirous to spare him, and yielded readily to the prayers of his sister, for whom an opportunity of interceding for him was obtained by the good offices of Lamartine.

The emeute of Barbes was regarded with disfavor by more experienced conspirators, but secret societies had introduced organization among the workmen.  Moreover, they were led by the bourgeoisie with a cry for parliamentary reform, which at that period was the supposed panacea for every kind of evil.

The king was not popular.  He was not the ideal Frenchman.  He was a Frenchman of the epicier, or small grocer, type.  As a bon pere de famille he was anxious to settle his sons well in life.  They were admirable young men, they deserved good wives, and as far as grace, beauty, and amiability went, they all obtained them; but up to 1846 not one of them had made a brilliant marriage.  This good fortune Louis Philippe hoped was reserved for his two younger sons,—­D’Aumale and Montpensier.

The Duke of Orleans was the most popular of the king’s sons.  Handsome, elegant, accomplished, and always careful in his toilet, he was a thorough Frenchman,—­the approved type of an aristocrat with liberal sympathies and ideas.  He was born at Palermo in 1810, and did not come to France till he was four years old.  He had an excellent tutor, who prepared him for his college.  There he took his place entirely on a par with other boys, and gained several prizes.  All Louis Philippe’s sons were sent to public schools.