Calcium 75
Barium 11
Magnesium 4
Manganese 57
Titanium 118
Chromium 18
Nickel 33
Cobalt 19
Hydrogen 4
Aluminium 2
Zinc 2
Copper 7

The probability is overwhelming that all these substances exist in the atmosphere of the sun.

Kirchhoff’s discovery profoundly modified the conceptions previously entertained regarding the constitution of the sun, leading him to views which, though they may be modified in detail, will, I believe, remain substantially valid to the end of time.  The sun, according to Kirchhoff, consists of a molten nucleus which is surrounded by a flaming atmosphere of lower temperature.  The nucleus may, in part, be clouds, mixed with, or underlying true vapour.  The light of the nucleus would give us a continuous spectrum, like that of the Drummond light; but having to pass through the photosphere, as Kirchhoff’s beam passed through the sodium flame, those rays of the nucleus which the photosphere emit are absorbed, and shaded lines, corresponding to the rays absorbed, occur in the spectrum.  Abolish the solar nucleus, and we should have a spectrum showing a bright line in the place of every dark line of Fraunhofer, just as, in the case of Kirchhoff’s second experiment, we should have the bright sodium lines of the flame if the lime-light were withdrawn.  These lines of Fraunhofer are therefore not absolutely dark, but dark by an amount corresponding to the difference between the light intercepted and the light emitted by the photosphere.

Almost every great scientific discovery is approached contemporaneously by many minds, the fact that one mind usually confers upon it the distinctness of demonstration being an illustration, not of genius isolated, but of genius in advance.  Thus Foucault, in 1849, came to the verge of Kirchhoff’s discovery.  By converging an image of the sun upon a voltaic arc, and thus obtaining the spectra of both sun and arc superposed, he found that the two bright lines which, owing to the presence of a little sodium in the carbons or in the air, are seen in the spectrum of the arc, coincide with the dark lines D of the solar spectrum.  The lines D he found to he considerably strengthened by the passage of the solar light through the voltaic arc.

Instead of the image of the sun, Foucault then projected upon the arc the image of one of the solid incandescent carbon points, which of itself would give a continuous spectrum; and he found that the lines D were thus generated in that spectrum.  Foucault’s conclusion from this admirable experiment was ’that the arc is a medium which emits the rays D on its own account, and at the same time absorbs them when they come from another quarter.’  Here he stopped.  He did not extend his observations beyond the voltaic arc; he did not offer any explanation of the lines of Fraunhofer; he did not arrive at any conception of solar chemistry, or of the constitution of the sun.  His beautiful experiment remained a germ without fruit, until the discernment, ten years subsequently, of the whole class of phenomena to which it belongs, enabled Kirchhoff to solve these great problems.