at its lowest ebb.  Chinese history consists of a series of dynasties, each strong at first and weak afterwards, each gradually losing control over subordinates, each followed by a period of anarchy (sometimes lasting for centuries), and ultimately succeeded by a new dynasty which temporarily re-establishes a strong Central Government.  Historians always attribute the fall of a dynasty to the excessive power of eunuchs, but perhaps this is, in part, a literary convention.

What distinguishes the Emperor is not so much his political power, which fluctuates with the strength of his personality, as certain religious prerogatives.  The Emperor is the Son of Heaven; he sacrifices to Heaven at the winter solstice.  The early Chinese used “Heaven” as synonymous with “The Supreme Ruler,” a monotheistic God;[3] indeed Professor Giles maintains, by arguments which seem conclusive, that the correct translation of the Emperor’s title would be “Son of God.”  The word “Tien,” in Chinese, is used both for the sky and for God, though the latter sense has become rare.  The expression “Shang Ti,” which means “Supreme Ruler,” belongs in the main to pre-Confucian times, but both terms originally represented a God as definitely anthropomorphic as the God of the Old Testament.[4]

As time went by the Supreme Ruler became more shadowy, while “Heaven” remained, on account of the Imperial rites connected with it.  The Emperor alone had the privilege of worshipping “Heaven,” and the rites continued practically unchanged until the fall of the Manchu dynasty in 1911.  In modern times they were performed in the Temple of Heaven in Peking, one of the most beautiful places in the world.  The annual sacrifice in the Temple of Heaven represented almost the sole official survival of pre-Confucian religion, or indeed of anything that could be called religion in the strict sense; for Buddhism and Taoism have never had any connection with the State.

The history of China is known in some detail from the year 722 B.C., because with this year begins Confucius’ Springs and Autumns, which is a chronicle of the State of Lu, in which Confucius was an official.

One of the odd things about the history of China is that after the Emperors have been succeeding each other for more than 2,000 years, one comes to a ruler who is known as the “First Emperor,” Shih Huang Ti.  He acquired control over the whole Empire, after a series of wars, in 221 B.C., and died in 210 B.C.  Apart from his conquests, he is remarkable for three achievements:  the building of the Great Wall against the Huns, the destruction of feudalism, and the burning of the books.  The destruction of feudalism, it must be confessed, had to be repeated by many subsequent rulers; for a long time, feudalism tended to grow up again whenever the Central Government was in weak hands.  But Shih Huang Ti was the first ruler who made his authority really effective over all China in historical times.  Although his dynasty came to an end with his son, the impression he made is shown by the fact that our word “China” is probably derived from his family name, Tsin or Chin[5]. (The Chinese put the family name first.) His Empire was roughly co-extensive with what is now China proper.