Another, and this constitutes one of the most striking differences between the moral ideals of the East and the West, is the low estimate put upon the inherent nature and value of woman, by which was determined her social position and the moral relations of the sexes.  Japan seems to have suffered somewhat in this respect from her acceptance of Hindu philosophy.  For there seems to be considerable unanimity among historians that in primitive times in Japan there prevailed a much larger liberty, and consequently a much higher regard, for woman than in later ages after Buddhism became powerful.  With regard, however, to that earlier period of over a thousand years ago, it is of little use to speculate.  I cannot escape the feeling, however, that the condition of woman then has been unconsciously idealized, in order to make a better showing in comparison with the customs of Western lands.  Be that as it may, the notions and ideals presented by Buddhism in regard to woman are clear, and clearly degrading.  She is the source of temptation and sin; she is essentially inferior to man in every respect.  Before she may hope to enter Nirvana she must be born again as man.  How widely these extreme views of woman have found acceptance in Japan, I am not in a position to state.  It is my impression, however, that they never received as full acceptance here as in India.  Nevertheless, as has already been shown,[BK] the ideals of what a woman should do and be make it clear that her social position for centuries has been relatively low; as wife she is a domestic rather than a helpmeet.  The “three obediences,” to parents, to husband, to son, set forth the ideal, although, without doubt, the strict application of the third, obedience to one’s son after he becomes the head of the household, is relatively rare.

What especially strikes the notice of the Occidental is the slight amount of social intercourse that prevails to-day between men and women.  Whenever women enter into the social pleasures of men, they do so as professional singers and dancers, they being mere girls and unmarried young women; this social intercourse is all but invariably accompanied with wine-drinking, even if it does not proceed to further licentiousness.  The statement that woman is man’s plaything has been often heard in Japan.  Confucian no less than Buddhistic ethics must bear the responsibility for putting and keeping woman on so low a level.  Concubinage, possibly introduced from China, was certainly sanctioned by the Chinese classics.

The Lei-ki allows an Emperor to have in addition to the Empress three consorts, nine maids of high rank, and twenty-seven maids of lower rank, all of whom rank as wives, and, beside these, eighty-one other females called concubines.  Concubinage and polygamy, being thus sanctioned by the classics, became an established custom in Japan.