In Prussia an enlightened divorce law formerly prevailed by which it was possible for a couple to separate without scandal when it was clearly shown that they could not live together in agreement.  But the German Code of 1900 introduced provisions as regards divorce which—­while in some respects more liberal than those of the English law, especially by permitting divorce for desertion and insanity—­are, on the whole, retrograde as compared with the earlier Prussian law and place the matter on a cruder and more brutal basis.  For two years after the Code came into operations the number of divorces sank; after that the public and the courts adapted themselves to the new provisions (more especially one which allowed divorce for serious neglect of conjugal duties) and the number of divorces began to increase with great rapidity.  “But,” remarks Hirschfeld, “how painful it has now become to read divorce cases!  One side abuses the other, makes accusations of the grossest character, employs detectives to obtain the necessary proofs of ‘dishonorable and immoral conduct,’ whereas, before, both parties realized that they had been deceived in each other, that they failed to suit each other, and that they could no longer live together.  Thus we see that the narrowing of individual responsibility in sexual matters has not only had no practical effect, but leads to injurious results of a serious kind."[343] In England a similar state of things has prevailed ever since divorce was established, but it seems to have become too familiar to excite either pain or disgust.  Yet, as Adner has pointed out,[344] it has moved in a direction contrary to the general tendency of civilization, not only by increasing the inquisitorial authority of public courts but by emphasizing merely external causes of divorce and abolishing the more subtle internal causes which constantly grow in importance with the refinement of civilization.

In Austria until recent years, Canon law ruled absolutely, and matrimony was indissoluble, as it still remains for the Catholic population.  The results as regards matrimonial happiness were in the highest degree deplorable.  Half a century ago Gross-Hoffinger investigated the marital happiness of 100 Viennese couples of all social classes, without choice of cases, and presented the results in detail.  He found that 48 couples were positively unhappy, only 16 were undoubtedly happy, and even among these there was only one case in which happiness resulted from mutual faithfulness, happiness in the other cases being only attained by setting aside the question of fidelity.[345] This picture, it is to be hoped, no longer remains true.  There is an influential Austrian Marriage Reform Association, publishing a journal called Die Fessel, or The Fetter.  “One was chained to another,” we are told.  “In certain circumstances this must have been the worst and most torturing penalty of all.  The most bizarre and repulsive couplings took place.  There were, it is true, many affectionate