made for work; he only meets pleasure in passing; he must be content that women should occupy themselves with it more than he.  It is men whom it exhausts, and men must always, in part, restrain their desires.”

As, however, we liberate ourselves from the bondage of a compulsory physical chastity, it becomes possible to rehabilitate chastity as a virtue.  At the present day it can no longer be said that there is on the part of thinkers and moralists any active hostility to the idea of chastity; there is, on the contrary, a tendency to recognize the value of chastity.  But this recognition has been accompanied by a return to the older and sounder conception of chastity.  The preservation of a rigid sexual abstinence, an empty virginity, can only be regarded as a pseudo-chastity.  The only positive virtue which Aristotle could have recognized in this field was a temperance involving restraint of the lower impulses, a wise exercise and not a non-exercise.[80] The best thinkers of the Christian Church adopted the same conception; St. Basil in his important monastic rules laid no weight on self-discipline as an end in itself, but regarded it as an instrument for enabling the spirit to gain power over the flesh.  St. Augustine declared that continence is only excellent when practised in the faith of the highest good,[81] and he regarded chastity as “an orderly movement of the soul subordinating lower things to higher things, and specially to be manifested in conjugal relationships”; Thomas Aquinas, defining chastity in much the same way, defined impurity as the enjoyment of sexual pleasure not according to right reason, whether as regards the object or the conditions.[82] But for a time the voices of the great moralists were unheard.  The virtue of chastity was swamped in the popular Christian passion for the annihilation of the flesh, and that view was, in the sixteenth century, finally consecrated by the Council of Trent, which formally pronounced an anathema upon anyone who should declare that the state of virginity and celibacy was not better than the state of matrimony.  Nowadays the pseudo-chastity that was of value on the simple ground that any kind of continence is of higher spiritual worth than any kind of sexual relationship belongs to the past, except for those who adhere to ancient ascetic creeds.  The mystic value of virginity has gone; it seems only to arouse in the modern man’s mind the idea of a piquancy craved by the hardened rake;[83] it is men who have themselves long passed the age of innocence who attach so much importance to the innocence of their brides.  The conception of life-long continence as an ideal has also gone; at the best it is regarded as a mere matter of personal preference.  And the conventional simulation of universal chastity, at the bidding of respectability, is coming to be regarded as a hindrance rather than a help to the cultivation of any real chastity.[84]