Among the most important products of this movement in Germany was the Hegelian theory of universal history.  According to Hegel’s views, which were generally accepted by those who occupied themselves with philosophical questions, universal history was described as “Progress in the consciousness of freedom” (Fortschritt im Bewusstsein der Freiheit).  In each period of the world’s history, it was explained, some one nation or race had been intrusted with the high mission of enabling the Absolute Reason, or Weltgeist, to express itself in objective existence, while the other nations and races had for the time no metaphysical justification for their existence, and no higher duty than to imitate slavishly the favoured rival in which the Weltgeist had for the moment chosen to incorporate itself.  The incarnation had taken place first in the Eastern Monarchies, then in Greece, next in Rome, and lastly in the Germanic race; and it was generally assumed, if not openly asserted, that this mystical Metempsychosis of the Absolute was now at an end.  The cycle of existence was complete.  In the Germanic peoples the Weltgeist had found its highest and final expression.

Russians in general knew nothing about German philosophy, and were consequently not in any way affected by these ideas, but there was in Moscow a small group of young men who ardently studied German literature and metaphysics, and they were much shocked by Hegel’s views.  Ever since the brilliant reign of Catherine II., who had defeated the Turks and had dreamed of resuscitating the Byzantine Empire, and especially since the memorable events of 1812-15, when Alexander I. appeared as the liberator of enthralled Europe and the arbiter of her destinies, Russians were firmly convinced that their country was destined to play a most important part in human history.  Already the great Russian historian Karamzin had declared that henceforth Clio must be silent or accord to Russia a prominent place in the history of the nations.  Now, by the Hegelian theory, the whole of the Slav race was left out in the cold, with no high mission, with no new truths to divulge, with nothing better to do, in fact, than to imitate the Germans.

The patriotic philosophers of Moscow could not, of course, adopt this view.  Whilst accepting the fundamental principles, they declared the theory to be incomplete.  The incompleteness lay in the assumption that humanity had already entered on the final stages of its development.  The Teutonic nations were perhaps for the moment the leaders in the march of civilisation, but there was no reason to suppose that they would always retain that privileged position.  On the contrary, there were already symptoms that their ascendency was drawing to a close.  “Western Europe,” it was said, “presents a strange, saddening spectacle.  Opinion struggles against opinion, power against power, throne against throne.  Science, Art, and Religion, the three chief motors of social life, have lost their force.  We venture