* I use here a foreign, in preference to an English, term, because the word “Nobility” would convey a false impression.  Etymologically the Russian word “Dvoryanin” means a Courtier (from Dvor=court); but this term is equally objectionable, because the great majority of the Dvoryanstvo have nothing to do with the Court.

In the old times, when Russia was merely a collection of some seventy independent principalities, each reigning prince was surrounded by a group of armed men, composed partly of Boyars, or large landed proprietors, and partly of knights, or soldiers of fortune.  These men, who formed the Noblesse of the time, were to a certain extent under the authority of the Prince, but they were by no means mere obedient, silent executors of his will.  The Boyars might refuse to take part in his military expeditions, and the “free-lances” might leave his service and seek employment elsewhere.  If he wished to go to war without their consent, they could say to him, as they did on one occasion, “You have planned this yourself, Prince, so we will not go with you, for we knew nothing of it.”  Nor was this resistance to the princely will always merely passive.  Once, in the principality of Galitch, the armed men seized their prince, killed his favourites, burned his mistress, and made him swear that he would in future live with his lawful wife.  To his successor, who had married the wife of a priest, they spoke thus:  “We have not risen against you, Prince, but we will not do reverence to a priest’s wife:  we will put her to death, and then you may marry whom you please.”  Even the energetic Bogolubski, one of the most remarkable of the old Princes, did not succeed in having his own way.  When he attempted to force the Boyars he met with stubborn opposition, and was finally assassinated.  From these incidents, which might be indefinitely multiplied from the old chronicles, we see that in the early period of Russian history the Boyars and knights were a body of free men, possessing a considerable amount of political power.

Under the Mongol domination this political equilibrium was destroyed.  When the country had been conquered, the Princes became servile vassals of the Khan and arbitrary rulers towards their own subjects.  The political significance of the nobles was thereby greatly diminished.  It was not, however, by any means annihilated.  Though the Prince no longer depended entirely on their support, he had an interest in retaining their services, to protect his territory in case of sudden attack, or to increase his possessions at the expense of his neighbours when a convenient opportunity presented itself.  Theoretically, such conquests were impossible, for all removing of the ancient landmarks depended on the decision of the Khan; but in reality the Khan paid little attention to the affairs of his vassals so long as the tribute was regularly paid; and much took place in Russia without his permission.